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OCR for page 549
APPENDIX A
Impact of Some Major Spills
(Spill Case Histories)
INTRODUCT ION
Both acute spills and oil seeps have provided oppor "unities for field
study of the impact of oil on the surrounding marine ecosystems.
Popularly, they are thought to resemble each other rather closely, and
indeed it is often assumed that the natural oil seep provides the sort
of controlled experimental situation for field studies that cannot be
found with the unpredictable acute tanker spills.
Scientific studies of tanker spills present several problems for
the serious scientist--awesome difficulties in field sampling, and
readiness of personnel and equipment. Spills are not anticipated, and
in the past, personnel and equipment have seldom been readily available.
Also, most spills occur in areas that have not been studied previously,
and adequate controls are rare. Spills frequently occur in weather
conditions that make sampling difficult or impossible. These problems
are compounded in offshore spills, where sampling becomes much more
difficult, background data are less available, and the expense of large
ship operations is difficult to finance on short notice.
Despite these difficulties, it is encouraging that acute spills
have not only continued to receive scientific attention since the
writing of the last NRC report, but also that field studies have
increased in number and in scope and have yielded some valuable data.
The long term follow-up studies have provided further understanding,
both of the vulnerability of the various ecosystems and of the
biological recovery processes.
Natural oil seeps, on the other hand, have received much less
attention, despite their seemingly obvious availability as a natural
experimental spill situation. Geographically, these sites are not
easily accessible, generally located in unsettled offshore locations,
and removed from marine laboratories. The major exception to this, the
seep off southern California, is located near a heavily populated area
with several major marine laboratories, and indeed has been the subject
of a number of studies. More recently, work has been initiated on two
seeps off the east Baffin Island coast in the Canadian Arctic. In this
case the seeps lie in an area of considerable geological interest, and
on the cruise track of annual Arctic research cruises out of eastern
Canada.
549
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550
However, seeps differ in several aspects from tanker spills and
from well blowouts as to the chemical composition of the oil fraction
accomodated in the water and the generally lower rate of release and
local concentration. Seeps therefore are not truly analogous to con-
trolled tanker spills, but they do provide an opportunity to obtain
parallel observations, par ticular ly on the weather ing processes of oil
and on the impact of such aged oil on surrounding biota under chronic
conditions .
Only a few major oil spills have been the object of detailed
scientific study, but among these are two of the largest that have ever
occurred--the Ixtoc I blowout of June 9, 1979, in the Gulf of Campeche,
Mexico, and the breakup of the tanker Amoco Cadiz of f the coast of
Brittany, France, on March 16, 1978. In addition to these giants there
are a number of smaller spills that have received considerable scien-
tific attention--the Florida sp'11 in Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts
(1969), the Arrow spill in Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia (1970), the
Metula spill in the Strait of Magellan {1974 ), the Argo Merchant
breakup off the east coast of the United States (1976), the Tsesis in
the Baltic south of Stockholm (1977 ), and the Kurdistan in Cabot-Strait
off Nova Scotia (1979~. The first spill to receive serious scientific
attention, the Torrey Canyon off the south coast of England (1967),
remains of interest to this date. However, the heavy use of disper-
sants and other chemical and physical treatment agents places this
spill in a separate category, and many of the impacts observed were due
largely to the awesome cleanup e f for ts used and not to the spilled
oil. A considerable amount of information on both the behavior and the
fate of the spilled oil in the mar ine environment and on the impact on
the living resources has been der ived through these studies . However,
all these spills dif fer both in the fate of the oil and in their bio-
logical impacts, with each spill presenting yet another set of condi-
tions and facets of petroleum efforts in the oceans. The examples
descr ibed below demonstrate this var. lability and dissimilar ity, but a t
the same time they indicate some coupon features.
AN INSHORE SPILL: THE BARGE FLORIDA
Two spills in relatively protected waters were intensively studied for
many years: the Florida barge spill of 1969 (Sanders et al., 1972,
1980) in the West Falmouth area of Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts, and the
Arrow spill of 1970 in Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia.
The barge Flor Ida grounded on rocks off West Falmouth Harbor,
~-
Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts, and lost 630 tons of No. 2 fuel oil. A
storm the following day drove the oil ashore, mixing it into water and
sediments . There were immediate k ills of small fishes, benthic inver-
tebrates, and marsh organisms . Some dispersants were used, and booms
were deployed in an attempt to keep the oil out of West Falmouth and
Wild Harbor . Visible oil never appeared in West Falmouth, but the
booms were unable to keep oil out of Wild Harbor. The extent of the
immediate k ill was documented by t imely sampl ing befor e the dead
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551
organisms decomposed. Oil and its effects persisted for at least 10
years after the spill (Sanders et al., 1980) .
Oil Fate
The slick was washed ashore and mixed into the water rapidly. There
were no special studies of any effects that the intact slick might have
had in the short period before its breakup. No concentration measure-
ments were made on oil in the water column.
In the sediments the spilled oil fared rather differently, with
recognizable components of the spilled No. 2 fuel oil persisting for at
least 8 years. Sediments from the Wild Harbor station yielded 1-3 mg
aromatic fraction per gram of dry weight until at least July 1976,
compared with 0.02-0.04 mg/g for control stations (Teal et al., 1978) .
Impac t on Bio ta
Fish
An immediate f ish k ill was documented at the time of the spill, with
fish washed ashore in windrows (Sampson and Sanders, 1969~. Measure-
ments on the mixed function oxygenase (MEtO) system in Eundulus
heteroclitus from Wild Harbor revealed induction, i.e., enhanced levels
of the activity of this hydrocarbon-metabolizing enzyme system, in
comparison with similar fish taken from control stations (Burns,
1976). Four years after the spill, the fish showed a reduction of body
burden of hydrocarbons to near background levels, presumed to be the
r esult of the LEO enzyme activity (Burns and Teal, 1979) . High MEG
levels continued to be measured 8 years after the spill in F.
heteroclitus from this area, correlating with the persistence of oil in
the sediments (Stegeman, 1978 ~ .
Benthos
The most persistent impact was in the benthic macrofaunal communities
(Sanders, 1978) . Within 48 hours after the arrival of the oil from the
Florida, there was nearly total eradication of the macrobenthos at the
most heavily oiled sites, with oil concentrations exceeding 133 ng/g
wet weight (ca. 400 ug/g dry weight). At sites with intermediate oil
levels (9-100 ug/g), there were intermediate reductions as compared
with control s ites . Soft-bodied animals k illed by the oil disappeared
within 1 week. The deaths would not have been detectable if sampling
had been initiated later than a few days after the spill (Sanders et
al., 1980~. Ampeliscid amphipods were particularly vulnerable to oil,
in par t because of the habit of these organisms to move into contami-
nated sediments. These declines In the macrobenthos continued until
the oil had decreased sufficiently in concentration and toxic components
to permit their survival (Sanders et al., 19721.
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552
Oppor tun is t spec ies typi ~ fed by Capi tella in the inshor e s tation 5
increased greatly in abundance, monopoliz ing the otherwise defaunated
sediments for the f irst 11 months following the spill . At that time
this opportunistic species peaked in population, and subsequently
"crashed. n A similar course was observed with another opportunistic
species Mediomastis in sites further offshore, i.e., steady increase in
population numbers while overwhelming the defaunated area, followed by
a rapid crash, or drop in numbers. It differed from Capitella only in
that it peaked somewhat later and its opportunistic period occurred for
several months later.
In general the changes in fauna matched the extent of pollution by
the No. 2 fuel oil, both in intensity and duration (Sanders et al.,
1980). Faunal changes included decreases in diversity, in density, and
in numbers of species. The recovery pattern of the impacted communities
also showed abnormalities that could be linked to the extent of oiling.
For example, at the minimally oiled sites the recovery process was rapid
with short term effects. Recovery was essentially complete within a
year after the spill. However, at the intermediate and heavily oiled
sites the recovery process was markedly different. At the intermediate
polluted sites the recovery process was dominated by the initial
de£aunation and subsequent high postlarval settlment thalf million/
cm~2), leading to high numbers of individuals (high richness) but low
numbers of species (low evenness). Here a more normal recovery pattern
was not evident until 3 years after the spill. At the most heavily
oiled sites a "normal" recovery pattern was not evident for the 52
months of study following the spill (Sanders, 1978; Sanders et al. ,
1980).
There were no detailed meiofaunal studies, although in some of the
initial samples taken in the most heavily oiled stations, field notes
showed the presence of large numbers of nematodes.
Intertidal Communities
Marsh grass (Spartina alterniflora) was completely killed off on the
most heavily oiled parts of the intertidal area (oil concentrations
over 2,000 ng/g). By 1981 recovery was not yet complete, although
most areas seemed normal in appearance at first visual inspection.
Bivalves were particularly susceptible to the oil and its effects.
Approximately 77 bushels of soft-shell clams (Mya arenar ia) and 11, 200
bushels of seed clams were reported killed in Wild Harbor (Sousa, 1970~.
Fiddler crabs (Uca pugnax) were reduced in density in the oiled
marsh, which, as in the case with the benthic amphipods, acted as a
lethal trap for these territorial organisms. Behavioral changes caused
by the oil included slowing of movements and digging of burrows, the
latter being shallower than normal. Newly settled animals appeared to
be more susceptible to the oil than the adults, and their settling
success was sharply reduced (Krebs and Burns, 19771. Recovery was
found to be highly correlated with the loss of the naphthalene fraction
of the oil trapped in the sediments. However, recovery of the fiddler
crab population was not complete in 1977, 7 years after the spill
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553
(Krebs and Burns, 19771. Induction of MFO system activity was detected
in tissues of the fiddler crabs, but it would seem that the MEN levels
were insufficient to deal with the body burden of hydrocarbons within
the lifetime of these organisms (Burns, 1976) .
Changes in populations, similar to those descr ibed for the inter-
t idal areas, were found in the soft-bottom inter tidal areas below the
salt marsh (Sanders et al ., 1980) (Figure A-1 ~ .
AN OPEN BAY SPILL: THE ARROW
The Arrow spill (Anon, 1970 ~ occurred on February 4, 1970, in Chedabucto
Bay, Nova Scotia, when the tanker ran aground on Cerberus Rock on her
way into the off-loading facilities in the Strait of Canso. She was
carrying 15,000 tons of Bunker C fuel oil, of which about two-thirds
were released into the waters of the bay (Anon, 1970 ~ .
Although Chedabucto Bay in some ways represents a relatively
sheltered environment (its northern half consists of numerous small
lagoons and shallow embayments), the entrance to the bay opens directly
onto the Atlantic Ocean, and at the time of the accident the prevailing
winds caused high sea state conditions within the bay. As a result, oil
driven by wind (Figure A-2) and wave action coated over 300 km of the
bay's shorelines (Figure A-3), before the remainder of the oil was
swept out of the bay and into the Atlantic. Eventually oil from the
Arrow was traced as far south as Halifax, N. S., and Bermuda.
Oil Fate
In May 1970, 3 months after the spill, levels as h igb as 100 ug/L
were found in the water column (Levy, 19711; but by April 1971,
concentrations had dropped to background levels, cat 1 1lg/L (Gordon
and Michalik, 1971~.
Oiling along the southern and western shores of the bay resulted in
a mixture of oil with sand, gravel, and rocks to yield a resistant
pavement of tar along much of the coastline. By 1976 such surface
oiling was sharply reduced, either by wave erosion or by burial, and
could be found v isually pr imar fly in a few "hotshots " (Janus in Lagoon,
Inhabitants Bay, Black Duck Cove) (Vandermealen, 1977) (Figure A-4) .
However, a parallel chemical analysis of subsurface sediments indicated
high concentrations of Arrow oil persisting below the surface within
the beaches (1, 280 fig Bunker C per gram of sediment at 7-11 cm,
compared with 106 at the surface and 27 ~g/g at 12-15 cm), represent-
ing a potential long term source of reentry of spilled oil (Figure A-5)
(Keizer et al., 1978) . But by this time, the origins of these hydro-
carbons could no longer be unequivocally traced to the Arrow because of
weather ing and contamination from subsequent spills (Keizer et al.,
1978) .
OCR for page 554
554
100
ALSO
40
30
.£
20
10
. -
5
4
) _
~ ,
3
2 _
Whole found
Stations 9,'0,20.3~.3s and ISt Intertidal
Discrepancy index values for the
first and second years
· Sta. 9 · Sta.= Intertidal
~ sta.Io · Sta. 3'
a Sta. 20 a Sta. AS
~ savor
30- ~
~\'/ - ~ e - .
l_/ ~ .'L ~
~ fovea
_5 \
8L'ZZAnOS Bar
· 35 ~ _ <=~
'-- ~20.
, ~\
'J ~
At,
· , ~
1
o~
OCR for page 555
555
'''l.'l WIND SPEED
0 3060
KNOTS
~ 1ll//1ll 1 /11\\\\\~\ \\~7~
~ 3 1 4 1 - 5 6 1 j 1 8 1 9 1 10 1 11 12
FEBRUARY
Tl M E ( DAYS )
FIGURE A-2 Mean wind vectors over Chedabucto Bay, February 3-12,
1970. Shown are the 6-hourly mean vectors of the reduced geostrophic
winds .
SOURCE: Based on data from Anon (1970~.
Impact on Biota
Most of the work on organisms was done on littoral communities, with
very few observations made in the water column. Thus, for example, no
data of impact on f ish are available .
Conover (1971 ) found incorporation of oil droplets by copepods in
the bay water column. Most apparently passed through the animals
without modification, although no detailed uptake or tissue hydrocarbon
studies were done at the time. The oil droplets, many of the general
size range of the food of the copepods, were apparently filtered from
the water column by the animals. Eventually a considerable portion of
the oil droplets became associated with the fecal pellets. AS much as
10% of the oil in the water was associated with the copepods, and up to
7% was found in the fecal pellets, sugggesting that this route may be
an important sedimentation route for spilled oil. There appeared to be
no obvious effect of the oil on the copepods, although no data are
available on th is .
Benthos
Most studies on benthic organisms were carried out in the rocky and
sedimentary intertidal areas (Thomas, 1973 , 1977 , 1978), although in
follow-up studies, attention was focused on the low energy, silt-
dominated lagoons. The oil was concentrated primarily in the upper
two-thirds of the intertidal zone. Studies showed the oil to be most
persistent when stranded along the mean high tide line, where in
sheltered lagoons it was still present visually 10 years after the
evens e The rockweed Eucus vesiculosus was reduced in vertical
distr ibution for about 5 years. FOCUS spiralis, which is confined
generally to the region up to the high tide line, was killed off
completely and had not reappeared in the oiled region by 1976, 6 years
after the spill. In sheltered areas the marsh grass Spartina
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556
[ 'W:.
~ All-r
| . STRAIT: .\ it: . ·
OF CANSO :
~MADAM:
· . .:!
SCOTI A · :3
· . .
2
. :-~
NOVA
to
CERB ERUS
. ~in- ROCK
CHEDA BUC TO BA Y
-W. :
ATLANTIC
OCEA N
FIGURE A-3 Geographical extent of shoreline contamination in
Chedabucto Bay, February 1970, immediately following Arrow breakup.
SOURCE:: From Anon (1970 ~ .
alterniflora population declined steadily after the spill, with few
surviving plants remaining 1 year later, However, it recovered 2 years
later , by 1973. Rocky shore animals including barnac' es and per i-
winkles did not change in abundance or in distribution except where
their habitat had been altered by changes in the rockweed, demonstrat-
ing the significance of community associations (Thomas, 19781. Larvae
of the common barnacle Balanus balanoides apparently settled and grew
normally, even during the spill year, 1970 (Thomas, 1977~. In contrast,
follow-up studies suggested changes in bivalve larval recruitment 6
years afterward (Gilfillan and Vandermoulen, 1978~.
A detailed follow-up study was done in 1976, 6 years after the
spill, when sediments from oiled sites still contained 10-25,000 ug/g
of oil (measured with fluorescence). Species diversity (Shannon-Weiner
index) was lower at oiled than at unoiled control sites. Macrofaunal
biomass was cat 1,400 wet g/m2 at oiled sites, versus approximately
4,400 wet g/m2 at control stations. Oil concentrations in living
clams in 1976 averaged between 150 and 350 ug/g, compared with 650
g/g in recently dead bivalves in 1970. Periwinkles also were found
to be contaminated with oil, but the average level of contamination was
only 12-18 ug/g. The marsh grass S. alterniflora from six oiled
OCR for page 557
o75
In
._ 50 ~
_ \
_
~ 25
o
To
o
\
\
557
to
\
total oil cover
``
`_~i ~
~-_hea\,y oiling only
. , , , , , -^_,
'70 '71 '72 '73 '74 '75 '76 '77
Time ( years )
FIGURE A-4 Erosion pattern of stranded Arrow Bunker C fuel oil on
Chedabucto Bay shorelines, 1970-1976. Curves based on shoreline
surveys and visual inspection of res idual stranded oil .
SOURCE: Vandermealen (19771.
sites still showed surprisingly high contamination of about 15,000
ug/g, compared with less than 70 in control (Thomas, 1978~.
Six and seven year s after the spill, populations of soft-shelled
clams from oiled sites were still stressed (Gilfillan and Vandermealen,
1978~. Fewer mature adults were found at oiled stations. Individuals
showed lower shell growth, lower assimilation rates, and lags of 1-2
year s in tissue growth . These observations wer e con f irmed in par allel
studies by Thomas (1978), and reduced weight of body and shell
persisted through 1979 (MacDonald and Thomas, 1982) .
On the other hand, populations of the lugworm Arenicola were more
abundant in oiled sediments in 1976 than anywhere else in Nova Scotia.
They did exhibit elevated hydrocarbon concentrations, suggesting that
they are relatively resistant to oil pollution (Gordon et al., 1978~.
AN OPEN OCEAN SPILL WITH OFFSHORE WINDS: THE ~~ ~C~-^
The Argo Merchant spill (Grose and Mattson, 1977; Wilson et al., 1978),
in several ways, represents the opposite to the Arrow spill. Both
spills occurred in winter, on the northeast coast of North America,
with the same oil cargo (Bunker C fuel oil) . However, whereas the
Arrow broke up in a large embayment, with initially onshore winds, the
Argo Merchant ran aground and broke up in open waters, with prevailing
offshore winds for most of the spill period. In the end, much of the
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558
| E3unker C oil |
O'er
60 ~ 4` ~\~
AJAR
trapped oil
Tidal flushing ~ Water column
( p9/1) ``o 4) ( H9/1)
.~ /~6
FIGURE A-5 Summary of stranded Bunker C fuel oil reentry pattern into
mar ine environment by oil stranded on low energy gravel-cobble beach .
SOURCE: Vandermeulen and Gordon (1976 ~ .
Arrow' s cargo became stranded on ad jacent coastlines, while the oil
from the Argo Merchant disappeared from view in the Atlantic Ocean.
The Argo Merchant ran aground on Nantucket Shoals, off Massachu-
setts, on December 15 , 1976 (Figure A-6), and over the next month
spilled almost her entire cargo (29,000 tons) of No. 6 fuel oil (Grose
and Mattson, 1977 ~ . The cargo also contained about 20 Be of its volume
in cutting stock {equivalent to No. 2 fuel oil) for thinning purposes.
Storms broke up the vessel after grounding, and attempts to pump the
oil into another vessel failed. Burning the oil was tr fed without
success. No dispersants were used.
Oil escaped from the wreck for 1 month after grounding, but sur-
prisingly little oil was found later in its immediate vicinity. In
February 1977, significant contamination was found near the wreck,
extending at least down to 8- to 13-cm depth, but by July 1977 no
evident cargo oil remained. It is speculated that the bow forced oil
into the sand, or that sand was forced age inst the hull by currents and
carr fed the oil away from the wreck along the bottom. Most of the oil
that appeared on the sur face was formed into large floating pancakes n
and disappeared into the ocean to the east (Figure A-6~. Parts of the
cutting stock dissolved and could be detected under the slick at
concentrations up to 250 ,~g/L.
It was the occasion for one of the most elaborate slick monitor ing
efforts up to that time (e.g., Grose and Mattson, 1977; Spaulding,
19781, but because of the bad weather, relatively few samples of water,
sediment, or biota were obtained (Grose and Mattson, 1977; Wilson et
al., 1978) . Despite the relatively high potential toxicity of the
cutting stock in the cargo, there was little evidence of impact on the
mar ine fauna or phytoplankton . The accident occurred at the time when
the fewest potential effects on pelagic organisms would be expected: a
period of low productivity in the water column, with few fish eggs and
larvae present. The spill did provide, however, the first indications
OCR for page 559
4i
40.
41
40
41
40.
559
Too
-
69°
68°
CAPE COD
: . · ,:,
NANTUCKET
ISLAND ~
. at.
C~y
90-100 %
ATLANTI C
r
,200m ~ _s
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,)2000 m
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70. 6g 68.
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NANTUCKET
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96-100
ATLANTIC
200 m :~J ~ooo m
69
76~,~20,0m
CAPE COQ
NANTUCKET
ISLAND ~
'=3
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41
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l
Pancakes
/ \ Rainbow /~9Rt i~ncokes
/ Poncakes ~
~ /
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/ Poncakes
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k~7~7
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ATLANTI C Heavy
Pancakes n ~V/O J~
20-30% ]~
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'<10%
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200 m :20Joo~
1 . . _ l Y _
71- 70- 6g. 68- 67°
41
g40
FIGURE A-6 Hor izontal
dispersion of oil
spilled from the Argo
Merchant, December 17,
20, and 23, 1977.
SOURCE: Lissauer and
Welsh (1978~.
OCR for page 572
572
Intertidal and Subtidal Communities
The macroinfauna, along the Texas coast, dominated by polychaetes and
haustoriid amphipods, showed decreases in population density but not a
parallel decrease in numbers of species. The changes may have been due
to the Ixtoc I oil, but hurricanes, seasonal changes, and cleanup tech-
niques (dispersants) may also have been responsible (Tbobeau et al.,
1981~. However, it should be noted that other studies in the Gulf
region do not show any effect of storms on these organisms.
AN ONSHORE l'ROPICAL SPILL: THE ZOE COLOCOTRON I
The Zoe Colocotroni (Nadeau and Bergquist, 1977; Tosterson, 1977) spill
represents one of the few tropical spills that has received any
scientific attention. As a result, little is known about the potential
impact of oil on tropical ecosystems, especially the common mangrove
and coral reef communities, which constitute a large part of the
tropical marine coastline.
The tanker Zoe Colocotroni ran aground off LaParguera, Puerto Rico,
on 18 March 1973. In order to free the vessel, about 5,000 tons of
crude oil were pumped overboard. An estimated 60% of this crude oil
was subsequently swept into Bahia Sucia, off the extreme southwestern
tip of Puerto Rico. There the oil impacted the sea grass beds,
mangrove communities, and lagoons.
Oil Fate
Four years later (1977) much of the oil had disappeared, but some still
remained on the west side of Bahia Sucia. Analyses showed this to be
highly weathered (Page et al., 1979~. Follow-up work, in 1978 and
1979, showed that Zoe Colocotroni oil, apparently unaltered, still
persisted in some areas. Tarry residues were found in the bottom ooze
of largely shallow salt lagoons. Droplets of tar were readily dislodged
when the soft bottom sediments were disturbed. Once on the surface of
the lagoon water these tar droplets slowly formed sheens of oil . As ide
from such tarry deposits, however, it appears that most of the stranded
Zoe Colocotroni oil had undergone extensive weathering. Analyses of oil
sediments from all impacted environments showed extensive degradation
of the lower-molecular-weight hydrocarbons, presumably because of high
microbial activity. Leaching out of soluble alkanes and of the smaller
aromatic components by tidal waters may also be a factor in these
environments (Gilfillan, personal communication) .
Impact on Biota
An initial assessment of the impact of the Zoe Colocotron i on
biological communities of the area showed large numbers of dead sea
cucumbers, conchs, prawns, sea urchi ns, and polychaete annelids washed
OCR for page 573
573
ashore (Nadeau and Bergquist, 1977)0 Dead and dying organisms were
also found in offshore sea grass beds (Thalassia). The sea grass beds
themselves also suffered from contact with the oil entrained into the
water column by the action of the surf. Leaves turned brown and black,
and a considerable amount of Thalassia died and was removed by wave
action. The oil also had an acute effect on the mangrove communities,
with the red mangrove most severely affected, together with the fauna
1 iving in the mangrove prop root environments .
Subsequen t surveys of the impacted area have shown marked changes
in the affected faunal and floral communities. By 1976 about 1 ha of
red mangroves had become defoliated and eventually died, presumably
through suffocation of the specialized aer ial prop roots by oil .
Apparently, however, degradation of spilled, stranded oil in tropical
environments occurs at a greater rate than in more temperate climates,
as suggested by chemical analyses of oil from the Bahia Sucia sediments.
A similar rate of biological recovery appears to be occurring, except
for the impacted red mangrove conununities in which, at the time of the
most recent survey (1979), the faunal composition was still marked by
the presence of opportunistic polychaete species (Gilf illan et al.,
1981) . In general, changes in faunal composition appeared to be
related to the degree of weather ing of oil, which ire turn is related to
water movement over the sediments.
SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION
Clearly, these spills differed markedly in their extent and impact,
much being dependent on meteorological conditions operating at the time
of the spill . Thus, for example, the Arrow' s spilled oil eventually
washed out into the open Atlantic, but not before all of the Chedabucto
Bay coastline had been heavily oiled under the influence of prevailing
easterlies and southeasterlies. The coastline of Massachusetts escaped
this fate 6 years later when the Argo Merchant ran aground on the
Nantucket Shoal, largely because of offshore winds operating for most
of the postspill per iod. On the other hand, Amoco Cadiz oil remained
near the Brittany coast for several weeks under the action of the
shifting northeasterly and northwesterly winds. The IXtoc I blowout
presented problems of a prolonged underwater oil spill source into a
large coastal circulation system. The Zoe Colocotroni spill in general
parallels the Flor Ida spill in its impact on benthic communities and in
long term oiling of soft lagoon al sediments. Its differences lie
pr imar fly in the higher temperatures found in the tropical environment,
which appear to hasten the breakdown of spilled oil. Or the other
hand, the Zoe Colocotroni presented two new features of oil spills:
oiling of sea grass beds and impact on mangrove communities.
Biological impacts var. fed as did the oil fates, from the long term
problems still encountered in benthic communities at the Florida site
to the virtual absence of observed effects on biota from the Ixtoc I,
although the latter in large part reflects the absence of biological
studies. Low energy coastal environments appear to be particularly
vulnerable to the effects of oil and to oil entrapment, as was seen at
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574
the Florida, Arrow, Zoe Colocotroni, and Amoco Cadiz spills. They also
demonstrate the persistence of both the oil and its effects, especially
in association with soft sediments (see also Teal and Howarth, 1983),
in some instances for over a decade (Arrow, Flor ida) . However, as
noted elsewhere in this report, oiled environments do clean themselves,
and there appear to exist in all cases briefly examined here, mechanisms
of oil degradation and biological recovery with the potential for
eventual complete recovery.
If one were to rank the various factors that can influence the
potential impact and persistence of oil in these various spills, then
clearly, biological impact is linked closely to the extent and duration
of oiling (e.g., Florida, Amoco Cadiz). In this respect, the low
energy lagoonal environments appear to be most susceptible for long
term impact. Another, generally unexplored, factor seems to be the
rate of release of spilled oil, with the rate of oil spillage being
related to spill impact. For example, the Amoco Cadiz spilled
approximately 100,000 tons over 1-2 days, while the Ixtoc I blowout
spilled about the same amount in about 2 months. Tne Santa Bar oar a
Channel seep, on the other hand, released about that amount over the
course of a century or more. While there are, of-course, many
differences between these three spills, one would expect qualitative
differences in their impact, just because of the different release
rates.
Together these five examples of tanker spills have introduced about
270,000 tons of crude, Bunker C, and No. 2 fuel oils into the world's
oceans, plus at least twice that amount from the Ixtoc I blowout
(estimated variously at between 454,000 and 1,400,000 tons). Remnants
of this oil can still be found in five out of the six (the Argo
Merchant's cargo disappeared from view totally). Remnants of their
effects can also Still be measured, in terms of numbers of biota and in
depression of certain metabolic parameters, at the sites of the Florida,
Arrow, Zoe Colocotroni, and the Amoco Cadiz, and perhaps at the IXtoc
~ . ,
I. Of these, the impact on seabird populations at the Amoco Cadiz site
has undeniably been the most dramatic. A disastrous effect on the bird
population had been feared in the case of the Amoco Cadiz, but it did
not materialize, suggesting that the survival potential of seabirds, at
least for the eastern North Atlantic populations, is quite good (see
also Chapter 5, Impact on Seabird Populations section). In none of
these examples has a widespread, immediate impact on fish populations
been observed, nor generally on the pelagic plankton communities.
By far the most persistent impact is found instead in the intertidal
and subtidal benthic communities, where long term perturbations can be
found several years after the spill. Where the oil has become stranded
on coastlines, such impact can extend to the ecological balance and
stability of the coastlines as well as to economic resources, as in the
case of the impacted oyster mariculture of northern Brittany (Amoco
Cadiz, Maurin, 19811.
One major feature of oil spills, which has not received much
attention and remains an enigma, is the fate of nonstranded oil. Of
the volume of oil spilled by the tankers discussed here, about 165,000
tons (60~) did not come ashore but is largely unaccounted for, having
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575
TABLE A-1 Estimates of the Distr ibution of Oil Spilled from the Tanker s
Ar row, Zoe Colocotron i, and the Amoco Cadiz
~. .
Tanker Distr ibution Tons Percentage
,
Arrow"
In tanker pr for to casualty
Removed by pumping
Remaining in hull
15,000
5,432
168
Ashore in Chedabucto Bay1,895
At the surface within Chedabucto Bay21
At depth with in Chedabucto Bay?
Evaporated?
Swept ou t into the Atlantic
8,421
Zoe Colocotronib Pumped overboard5, 000
Ashore in Bahia Sucia3,00060
At sea/evaporated2, 00040
Amoco CadizC Total spilled223,000
-
Subtidal sediments18,0008
Onshore62, 00028
Water column30,00013.5
Biodegraded10,0004.5
Evaporated67 ,00030
Unaccounted for 46,000 20.5
Canon (1970 ~ .
tNadeau and Bergquist (1977~.
undlach et al . (1983 ~ .
either evaporated into the atmosphere or dispersed or dissolved into
the water column. In addition, most of the spilled oil from the Ixtoc
I blowout remains either at sea or in the atmosphere. Little can be
said about this signif i cant portion of the spilled tonnage, for there
exist at present no data to enable us to assess either its fate or its
degradation rate in the open ocean.
The
largest gap in ache data to date. Estimates made at the time of the
Arrow spill were at best crude (Table A-1), but they have not been
refined significantly, and no estimates exist for the Florida, Argo
Merchant or Ixtoc I. For the Zoe Colocotroni . only the s imulest
~, _ _ _
absence of a spill budget (mass balance ~ is probably the s ingle
estimate exists for oil lost into the water column, 40% (Nadeau and
Bergquist, 1977) . The best attempt at an oil budget available is
probably that calculated for the Amoco Cadiz (Table A-1) . However,
even these figures, based in part on chemical analyses and in part on
theoretical extrapolations, remain estimates at best.
OCR for page 576
576
As a large por tion of the oil spilled to date, whether from tanker s
or from other discharges, appears never to have reached shorelines
(where amounts and effects can be assessed to some extent), the fate,
and ultimate impact of the oil presents a large set of questions to be
answered .
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
amoco cadiz
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