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Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects (1985)

Chapter: APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)

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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
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Page 549
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 550
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 551
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 552
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 553
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 554
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 555
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 556
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 557
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 558
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 559
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 560
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 561
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 562
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
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Page 563
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 564
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 565
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
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Page 566
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 567
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 568
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 569
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 570
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 571
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 573
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 574
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 575
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 576
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 577
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 578
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 579
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 580
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
×
Page 581
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX A: Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories)." National Research Council. 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/314.
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Page 582

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APPENDIX A Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories) INTRODUCT ION Both acute spills and oil seeps have provided oppor "unities for field study of the impact of oil on the surrounding marine ecosystems. Popularly, they are thought to resemble each other rather closely, and indeed it is often assumed that the natural oil seep provides the sort of controlled experimental situation for field studies that cannot be found with the unpredictable acute tanker spills. Scientific studies of tanker spills present several problems for the serious scientist--awesome difficulties in field sampling, and readiness of personnel and equipment. Spills are not anticipated, and in the past, personnel and equipment have seldom been readily available. Also, most spills occur in areas that have not been studied previously, and adequate controls are rare. Spills frequently occur in weather conditions that make sampling difficult or impossible. These problems are compounded in offshore spills, where sampling becomes much more difficult, background data are less available, and the expense of large ship operations is difficult to finance on short notice. Despite these difficulties, it is encouraging that acute spills have not only continued to receive scientific attention since the writing of the last NRC report, but also that field studies have increased in number and in scope and have yielded some valuable data. The long term follow-up studies have provided further understanding, both of the vulnerability of the various ecosystems and of the biological recovery processes. Natural oil seeps, on the other hand, have received much less attention, despite their seemingly obvious availability as a natural experimental spill situation. Geographically, these sites are not easily accessible, generally located in unsettled offshore locations, and removed from marine laboratories. The major exception to this, the seep off southern California, is located near a heavily populated area with several major marine laboratories, and indeed has been the subject of a number of studies. More recently, work has been initiated on two seeps off the east Baffin Island coast in the Canadian Arctic. In this case the seeps lie in an area of considerable geological interest, and on the cruise track of annual Arctic research cruises out of eastern Canada. 549

550 However, seeps differ in several aspects from tanker spills and from well blowouts as to the chemical composition of the oil fraction accomodated in the water and the generally lower rate of release and local concentration. Seeps therefore are not truly analogous to con- trolled tanker spills, but they do provide an opportunity to obtain parallel observations, par ticular ly on the weather ing processes of oil and on the impact of such aged oil on surrounding biota under chronic conditions . Only a few major oil spills have been the object of detailed scientific study, but among these are two of the largest that have ever occurred--the Ixtoc I blowout of June 9, 1979, in the Gulf of Campeche, Mexico, and the breakup of the tanker Amoco Cadiz of f the coast of Brittany, France, on March 16, 1978. In addition to these giants there are a number of smaller spills that have received considerable scien- tific attention--the Florida sp'11 in Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts (1969), the Arrow spill in Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia (1970), the Metula spill in the Strait of Magellan {1974 ), the Argo Merchant breakup off the east coast of the United States (1976), the Tsesis in the Baltic south of Stockholm (1977 ), and the Kurdistan in Cabot-Strait off Nova Scotia (1979~. The first spill to receive serious scientific attention, the Torrey Canyon off the south coast of England (1967), remains of interest to this date. However, the heavy use of disper- sants and other chemical and physical treatment agents places this spill in a separate category, and many of the impacts observed were due largely to the awesome cleanup e f for ts used and not to the spilled oil. A considerable amount of information on both the behavior and the fate of the spilled oil in the mar ine environment and on the impact on the living resources has been der ived through these studies . However, all these spills dif fer both in the fate of the oil and in their bio- logical impacts, with each spill presenting yet another set of condi- tions and facets of petroleum efforts in the oceans. The examples descr ibed below demonstrate this var. lability and dissimilar ity, but a t the same time they indicate some coupon features. AN INSHORE SPILL: THE BARGE FLORIDA Two spills in relatively protected waters were intensively studied for many years: the Florida barge spill of 1969 (Sanders et al., 1972, 1980) in the West Falmouth area of Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts, and the Arrow spill of 1970 in Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia. The barge Flor Ida grounded on rocks off West Falmouth Harbor, ~- Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts, and lost 630 tons of No. 2 fuel oil. A storm the following day drove the oil ashore, mixing it into water and sediments . There were immediate k ills of small fishes, benthic inver- tebrates, and marsh organisms . Some dispersants were used, and booms were deployed in an attempt to keep the oil out of West Falmouth and Wild Harbor . Visible oil never appeared in West Falmouth, but the booms were unable to keep oil out of Wild Harbor. The extent of the immediate k ill was documented by t imely sampl ing befor e the dead

551 organisms decomposed. Oil and its effects persisted for at least 10 years after the spill (Sanders et al., 1980) . Oil Fate The slick was washed ashore and mixed into the water rapidly. There were no special studies of any effects that the intact slick might have had in the short period before its breakup. No concentration measure- ments were made on oil in the water column. In the sediments the spilled oil fared rather differently, with recognizable components of the spilled No. 2 fuel oil persisting for at least 8 years. Sediments from the Wild Harbor station yielded 1-3 mg aromatic fraction per gram of dry weight until at least July 1976, compared with 0.02-0.04 mg/g for control stations (Teal et al., 1978) . Impac t on Bio ta Fish An immediate f ish k ill was documented at the time of the spill, with fish washed ashore in windrows (Sampson and Sanders, 1969~. Measure- ments on the mixed function oxygenase (MEtO) system in Eundulus heteroclitus from Wild Harbor revealed induction, i.e., enhanced levels of the activity of this hydrocarbon-metabolizing enzyme system, in comparison with similar fish taken from control stations (Burns, 1976). Four years after the spill, the fish showed a reduction of body burden of hydrocarbons to near background levels, presumed to be the r esult of the LEO enzyme activity (Burns and Teal, 1979) . High MEG levels continued to be measured 8 years after the spill in F. heteroclitus from this area, correlating with the persistence of oil in the sediments (Stegeman, 1978 ~ . Benthos The most persistent impact was in the benthic macrofaunal communities (Sanders, 1978) . Within 48 hours after the arrival of the oil from the Florida, there was nearly total eradication of the macrobenthos at the most heavily oiled sites, with oil concentrations exceeding 133 ng/g wet weight (ca. 400 ug/g dry weight). At sites with intermediate oil levels (9-100 ug/g), there were intermediate reductions as compared with control s ites . Soft-bodied animals k illed by the oil disappeared within 1 week. The deaths would not have been detectable if sampling had been initiated later than a few days after the spill (Sanders et al., 1980~. Ampeliscid amphipods were particularly vulnerable to oil, in par t because of the habit of these organisms to move into contami- nated sediments. These declines In the macrobenthos continued until the oil had decreased sufficiently in concentration and toxic components to permit their survival (Sanders et al., 19721.

552 Oppor tun is t spec ies typi ~ fed by Capi tella in the inshor e s tation 5 increased greatly in abundance, monopoliz ing the otherwise defaunated sediments for the f irst 11 months following the spill . At that time this opportunistic species peaked in population, and subsequently "crashed. n A similar course was observed with another opportunistic species Mediomastis in sites further offshore, i.e., steady increase in population numbers while overwhelming the defaunated area, followed by a rapid crash, or drop in numbers. It differed from Capitella only in that it peaked somewhat later and its opportunistic period occurred for several months later. In general the changes in fauna matched the extent of pollution by the No. 2 fuel oil, both in intensity and duration (Sanders et al., 1980). Faunal changes included decreases in diversity, in density, and in numbers of species. The recovery pattern of the impacted communities also showed abnormalities that could be linked to the extent of oiling. For example, at the minimally oiled sites the recovery process was rapid with short term effects. Recovery was essentially complete within a year after the spill. However, at the intermediate and heavily oiled sites the recovery process was markedly different. At the intermediate polluted sites the recovery process was dominated by the initial de£aunation and subsequent high postlarval settlment thalf million/ cm~2), leading to high numbers of individuals (high richness) but low numbers of species (low evenness). Here a more normal recovery pattern was not evident until 3 years after the spill. At the most heavily oiled sites a "normal" recovery pattern was not evident for the 52 months of study following the spill (Sanders, 1978; Sanders et al. , 1980). There were no detailed meiofaunal studies, although in some of the initial samples taken in the most heavily oiled stations, field notes showed the presence of large numbers of nematodes. Intertidal Communities Marsh grass (Spartina alterniflora) was completely killed off on the most heavily oiled parts of the intertidal area (oil concentrations over 2,000 ng/g). By 1981 recovery was not yet complete, although most areas seemed normal in appearance at first visual inspection. Bivalves were particularly susceptible to the oil and its effects. Approximately 77 bushels of soft-shell clams (Mya arenar ia) and 11, 200 bushels of seed clams were reported killed in Wild Harbor (Sousa, 1970~. Fiddler crabs (Uca pugnax) were reduced in density in the oiled marsh, which, as in the case with the benthic amphipods, acted as a lethal trap for these territorial organisms. Behavioral changes caused by the oil included slowing of movements and digging of burrows, the latter being shallower than normal. Newly settled animals appeared to be more susceptible to the oil than the adults, and their settling success was sharply reduced (Krebs and Burns, 19771. Recovery was found to be highly correlated with the loss of the naphthalene fraction of the oil trapped in the sediments. However, recovery of the fiddler crab population was not complete in 1977, 7 years after the spill

553 (Krebs and Burns, 19771. Induction of MFO system activity was detected in tissues of the fiddler crabs, but it would seem that the MEN levels were insufficient to deal with the body burden of hydrocarbons within the lifetime of these organisms (Burns, 1976) . Changes in populations, similar to those descr ibed for the inter- t idal areas, were found in the soft-bottom inter tidal areas below the salt marsh (Sanders et al ., 1980) (Figure A-1 ~ . AN OPEN BAY SPILL: THE ARROW The Arrow spill (Anon, 1970 ~ occurred on February 4, 1970, in Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia, when the tanker ran aground on Cerberus Rock on her way into the off-loading facilities in the Strait of Canso. She was carrying 15,000 tons of Bunker C fuel oil, of which about two-thirds were released into the waters of the bay (Anon, 1970 ~ . Although Chedabucto Bay in some ways represents a relatively sheltered environment (its northern half consists of numerous small lagoons and shallow embayments), the entrance to the bay opens directly onto the Atlantic Ocean, and at the time of the accident the prevailing winds caused high sea state conditions within the bay. As a result, oil driven by wind (Figure A-2) and wave action coated over 300 km of the bay's shorelines (Figure A-3), before the remainder of the oil was swept out of the bay and into the Atlantic. Eventually oil from the Arrow was traced as far south as Halifax, N. S., and Bermuda. Oil Fate In May 1970, 3 months after the spill, levels as h igb as 100 ug/L were found in the water column (Levy, 19711; but by April 1971, concentrations had dropped to background levels, cat 1 1lg/L (Gordon and Michalik, 1971~. Oiling along the southern and western shores of the bay resulted in a mixture of oil with sand, gravel, and rocks to yield a resistant pavement of tar along much of the coastline. By 1976 such surface oiling was sharply reduced, either by wave erosion or by burial, and could be found v isually pr imar fly in a few "hotshots " (Janus in Lagoon, Inhabitants Bay, Black Duck Cove) (Vandermealen, 1977) (Figure A-4) . However, a parallel chemical analysis of subsurface sediments indicated high concentrations of Arrow oil persisting below the surface within the beaches (1, 280 fig Bunker C per gram of sediment at 7-11 cm, compared with 106 at the surface and 27 ~g/g at 12-15 cm), represent- ing a potential long term source of reentry of spilled oil (Figure A-5) (Keizer et al., 1978) . But by this time, the origins of these hydro- carbons could no longer be unequivocally traced to the Arrow because of weather ing and contamination from subsequent spills (Keizer et al., 1978) .

554 100 ALSO 40 30 .£ 20 10 . - 5 4 ) _ ~ , 3 2 _ Whole found Stations 9,'0,20.3~.3s and ISt Intertidal Discrepancy index values for the first and second years · Sta. 9 · Sta.= Intertidal ~ sta.Io · Sta. 3' a Sta. 20 a Sta. AS ~ savor 30- ~ ~\'/ - ~ e - . l_/ ~ .'L ~ ~ fovea _5 \ 8L'ZZAnOS Bar · 35 ~ _ <=~ '-- ~20. , ~\ 'J ~ At, · , ~ 1 o~<S.` ''.~\ \ 10 000 1 000 100 + - Dens'1y {curn~r/~1iveJ tOO ~ 50 1 To 30 20 10 5 2 , _ o To-o ~ o l/ a , ~- 10 000 1000. 100 1C ~DENS/ TY {clumu/of iced FIGURE A-1 Faunal discrepancy indices at various stations in Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts, following the Flor Ida spill . (Top) Indices obtained by comparing the composition of the fauna in the first with the second year of study. (Bottom) Indices at station 10 (viz., inset) for the first and second, first and third, and second and third year. SOURCE: Adapted from Sander s (1978) .

555 '''l.'l WIND SPEED 0 3060 KNOTS ~ 1ll//1ll 1 /11\\\\\~\ \\~7~ ~ 3 1 4 1 - 5 6 1 j 1 8 1 9 1 10 1 11 12 FEBRUARY Tl M E ( DAYS ) FIGURE A-2 Mean wind vectors over Chedabucto Bay, February 3-12, 1970. Shown are the 6-hourly mean vectors of the reduced geostrophic winds . SOURCE: Based on data from Anon (1970~. Impact on Biota Most of the work on organisms was done on littoral communities, with very few observations made in the water column. Thus, for example, no data of impact on f ish are available . Conover (1971 ) found incorporation of oil droplets by copepods in the bay water column. Most apparently passed through the animals without modification, although no detailed uptake or tissue hydrocarbon studies were done at the time. The oil droplets, many of the general size range of the food of the copepods, were apparently filtered from the water column by the animals. Eventually a considerable portion of the oil droplets became associated with the fecal pellets. AS much as 10% of the oil in the water was associated with the copepods, and up to 7% was found in the fecal pellets, sugggesting that this route may be an important sedimentation route for spilled oil. There appeared to be no obvious effect of the oil on the copepods, although no data are available on th is . Benthos Most studies on benthic organisms were carried out in the rocky and sedimentary intertidal areas (Thomas, 1973 , 1977 , 1978), although in follow-up studies, attention was focused on the low energy, silt- dominated lagoons. The oil was concentrated primarily in the upper two-thirds of the intertidal zone. Studies showed the oil to be most persistent when stranded along the mean high tide line, where in sheltered lagoons it was still present visually 10 years after the evens e The rockweed Eucus vesiculosus was reduced in vertical distr ibution for about 5 years. FOCUS spiralis, which is confined generally to the region up to the high tide line, was killed off completely and had not reappeared in the oiled region by 1976, 6 years after the spill. In sheltered areas the marsh grass Spartina

556 [ 'W:. ~ All-r | . STRAIT: .\ it: . · OF CANSO : ~MADAM: · . .:! SCOTI A · :3 · . . 2 . :-~ NOVA to CERB ERUS . ~in- ROCK CHEDA BUC TO BA Y -W. : ATLANTIC OCEA N FIGURE A-3 Geographical extent of shoreline contamination in Chedabucto Bay, February 1970, immediately following Arrow breakup. SOURCE:: From Anon (1970 ~ . alterniflora population declined steadily after the spill, with few surviving plants remaining 1 year later, However, it recovered 2 years later , by 1973. Rocky shore animals including barnac' es and per i- winkles did not change in abundance or in distribution except where their habitat had been altered by changes in the rockweed, demonstrat- ing the significance of community associations (Thomas, 19781. Larvae of the common barnacle Balanus balanoides apparently settled and grew normally, even during the spill year, 1970 (Thomas, 1977~. In contrast, follow-up studies suggested changes in bivalve larval recruitment 6 years afterward (Gilfillan and Vandermoulen, 1978~. A detailed follow-up study was done in 1976, 6 years after the spill, when sediments from oiled sites still contained 10-25,000 ug/g of oil (measured with fluorescence). Species diversity (Shannon-Weiner index) was lower at oiled than at unoiled control sites. Macrofaunal biomass was cat 1,400 wet g/m2 at oiled sites, versus approximately 4,400 wet g/m2 at control stations. Oil concentrations in living clams in 1976 averaged between 150 and 350 ug/g, compared with 650 g/g in recently dead bivalves in 1970. Periwinkles also were found to be contaminated with oil, but the average level of contamination was only 12-18 ug/g. The marsh grass S. alterniflora from six oiled

o75 In ._ 50 ~ _ \ _ ~ 25 o To o \ \ 557 to \ total oil cover `` `_~i ~ ~-_hea\,y oiling only . , , , , , -^_, '70 '71 '72 '73 '74 '75 '76 '77 Time ( years ) FIGURE A-4 Erosion pattern of stranded Arrow Bunker C fuel oil on Chedabucto Bay shorelines, 1970-1976. Curves based on shoreline surveys and visual inspection of res idual stranded oil . SOURCE: Vandermealen (19771. sites still showed surprisingly high contamination of about 15,000 ug/g, compared with less than 70 in control (Thomas, 1978~. Six and seven year s after the spill, populations of soft-shelled clams from oiled sites were still stressed (Gilfillan and Vandermealen, 1978~. Fewer mature adults were found at oiled stations. Individuals showed lower shell growth, lower assimilation rates, and lags of 1-2 year s in tissue growth . These observations wer e con f irmed in par allel studies by Thomas (1978), and reduced weight of body and shell persisted through 1979 (MacDonald and Thomas, 1982) . On the other hand, populations of the lugworm Arenicola were more abundant in oiled sediments in 1976 than anywhere else in Nova Scotia. They did exhibit elevated hydrocarbon concentrations, suggesting that they are relatively resistant to oil pollution (Gordon et al., 1978~. AN OPEN OCEAN SPILL WITH OFFSHORE WINDS: THE ~~ ~C~-^ The Argo Merchant spill (Grose and Mattson, 1977; Wilson et al., 1978), in several ways, represents the opposite to the Arrow spill. Both spills occurred in winter, on the northeast coast of North America, with the same oil cargo (Bunker C fuel oil) . However, whereas the Arrow broke up in a large embayment, with initially onshore winds, the Argo Merchant ran aground and broke up in open waters, with prevailing offshore winds for most of the spill period. In the end, much of the

558 | E3unker C oil | O'er 60 ~ 4` ~\~ AJAR trapped oil Tidal flushing ~ Water column ( p9/1) ``o 4) ( H9/1) .~ /~6 FIGURE A-5 Summary of stranded Bunker C fuel oil reentry pattern into mar ine environment by oil stranded on low energy gravel-cobble beach . SOURCE: Vandermeulen and Gordon (1976 ~ . Arrow' s cargo became stranded on ad jacent coastlines, while the oil from the Argo Merchant disappeared from view in the Atlantic Ocean. The Argo Merchant ran aground on Nantucket Shoals, off Massachu- setts, on December 15 , 1976 (Figure A-6), and over the next month spilled almost her entire cargo (29,000 tons) of No. 6 fuel oil (Grose and Mattson, 1977 ~ . The cargo also contained about 20 Be of its volume in cutting stock {equivalent to No. 2 fuel oil) for thinning purposes. Storms broke up the vessel after grounding, and attempts to pump the oil into another vessel failed. Burning the oil was tr fed without success. No dispersants were used. Oil escaped from the wreck for 1 month after grounding, but sur- prisingly little oil was found later in its immediate vicinity. In February 1977, significant contamination was found near the wreck, extending at least down to 8- to 13-cm depth, but by July 1977 no evident cargo oil remained. It is speculated that the bow forced oil into the sand, or that sand was forced age inst the hull by currents and carr fed the oil away from the wreck along the bottom. Most of the oil that appeared on the sur face was formed into large floating pancakes n and disappeared into the ocean to the east (Figure A-6~. Parts of the cutting stock dissolved and could be detected under the slick at concentrations up to 250 ,~g/L. It was the occasion for one of the most elaborate slick monitor ing efforts up to that time (e.g., Grose and Mattson, 1977; Spaulding, 19781, but because of the bad weather, relatively few samples of water, sediment, or biota were obtained (Grose and Mattson, 1977; Wilson et al., 1978) . Despite the relatively high potential toxicity of the cutting stock in the cargo, there was little evidence of impact on the mar ine fauna or phytoplankton . The accident occurred at the time when the fewest potential effects on pelagic organisms would be expected: a period of low productivity in the water column, with few fish eggs and larvae present. The spill did provide, however, the first indications

4i 40. 41 40 41 40. 559 Too - 69° 68° CAPE COD : . · ,:, NANTUCKET ISLAND ~ . at. C~y 90-100 % ATLANTI C r ,200m ~ _s J:20Om ,)2000 m ~r 70. 6g 68. 70- 69~ . , _ _ . , . , _ , NANTUCKET ISLAND a. 0! 96-100 ATLANTIC 200 m :~J ~ooo m 69 76~,~20,0m CAPE COQ NANTUCKET ISLAND ~ '=3 4lo 40 41 40 67- l Pancakes / \ Rainbow /~9Rt i~ncokes / Poncakes ~ ~ / / Light / Poncakes / 10-20% k~7~7 907; >~ Z. s ATLANTI C Heavy Pancakes n ~V/O J~ 20-30% ]~ J Rainbow Pancokes '<10% _,~,,, Pancakes , ~ =e, ~ 200 m :20Joo~ 1 . . _ l Y _ 71- 70- 6g. 68- 67° 41 g40 FIGURE A-6 Hor izontal dispersion of oil spilled from the Argo Merchant, December 17, 20, and 23, 1977. SOURCE: Lissauer and Welsh (1978~.

560 of potential impact of oil on the development of f ish eggs under f ield spill conditions. Oil Fate The resulting slick soon broke up into a mixture of th ick pancakes surrounded by sheen . The pancakes var fed in thickness, averaging about 1 cm with smooth sur face . Underside examination of such pancakes by d iver s showed them to be s imilar in appear ance . Dispersion of the oil as droplets into the water column was studied on three cruises. Droplets of pure oil larger than 100 um in diameter were found in f ive out of forty-two samples. Samples of water taken from 6 m above the bottom contained oil-coated sediment particles, ranging in diameter from 100 to 500 Am (Cornillon, 1978) . In the water column, concentrations of oil ranged up to 340 ug/L, and in several stations were uniform down to 20 m. Concentrations, however, var. fed greatly. Thus at one station the sur face sample concentration was below detectability (20 ug/L), while at three others the concentration of the 3-m sample was below detectability, although the surface samples were 90-170 ug/L. One sample, taken from 79 m, contained 170 ug/L of oil in water. Winds, during the spill period, were offshore from Massachusetts, and as a result no oil from the Argo Merchant ever reached the shore- line, and no coastal impact was incurred. Hydrocarbon contamination of the bottom sediments seems to have been restricted to an area immediately around the wreck, and apparently was shor t 1 ived . Sediment analyses 1 and 2 months after the incident showed oiling, in the form of small tar particles or droplets, in a 10-15 km2 area around the s ite . Concentrations var. fed between 0 .1 and 327 ug hydrocarbons/g dry weight sediment (Hoffman and Quinn, 1980~. However, by July 1977 (7 months af ter the accident ~ only one station showed any trace of petroleum hydrocarbons, and that at a very low level. Impact on Biota Birds Bird observations showed that for a 9-day per iod following the wreck, about 1,120 birds from 13 different species passed through the area, mostly (92%) gulls. Oiled birds were seen near the wreck, as well as in the vicinity of the slicks, and ashore on Cape Cod and Nantucket. Over half of the herr ing gulls and about 41% of the Great Black-Backed gulls were oiled. Oiled birds found on the beaches were mostly alcids (murres, razorbills). Although bird abundances and total mortalities are difficult to evaluate, it was concluded that the spill probably had little effect on the coastal and marine bird populations off the New England coast (Powers and Rumage, 1978 ~ .

561 Plank ton Most of the focus was on copepods and f ish eggs and larvae f rom the impacted area. Copepods at most stations within 10 km of the wreck were found to have oil e ither on their mandibles or in their intestines. There was no clear correlation, however, between the occurrence of oil in the copepods and the presence of detectable oil concentration ire the water column. On the other hand, a high correlation was found between the oiling of copepods and the occurrence of dead fish eggs (Longwell, 1978) . Both cod and pollock eggs were found contaminated with oil adher ing to their surfaces . Examination of f ish eggs and embryos indicated that about 2096 of the collected cod eggs and up to 4696 of the pollock eggs sampled were either mor ibund or dead, in comparison to 4% mortality in laboratory-spawned mater ial. Unfortunately the weather conditions prevented collecting of more samples to improve the statistical evaluation. Sand launce larvae were low in numbers under the slick (Sherman and Busch, 1978), but their abundance was not correlated with other bio- logical effects of oil. Fish gut analyses showed Argo Merchant type alkanes In only two cod and one flounder out of 37 sampled. The prof lie of aromatic hydrocarbons matched in only one case (MacLeod et al., 1978) . Benthos Oil was found in an interstitial harpacticoid copepod and in a poly- chaete species, and on the appendages of a burrowing amphipod taken f ram samples near the wreck . A few other organisms were contaminated with tar, but there was no evidence to suggest whether it came from the Argo Merchant. It was concluded that generally there was no indication of signif icant impact of the Argo Merchant on the benthos (Pratt, 1978) . A NEAR-SHORE SPILL HTTH ONSHORE WIND: THE AMOCO CADIZ The Amoco Cadiz spill (Hess, 1978; Conan et al., 1978, 1981; Gundlach et al. ~ 983) is of interest for several reasons, aside from the obvious one that it is the largest single spill to date or iginating from a tanker accident. First, the spill occurred in an area of h igh water movement (the English Channel). However, because of the prevailing winds, the slicks did not dr if t off into the nearby Atlantic Ocean hut remained in the spill area for up to 4 weeks following the accident. As a result there was an almost continual oiling of the adjacent coastlines. Second, the coastline affected includes a wide range of coastal systems, from high energy rocky coast to low energy soft sediment systems such as sandy pocket beaches, salt marshes, and estuar ine tidal rivers. All these were at one time or another heavily oiled during the month following the breakup of the tanker . Finally , the area represents a significant economic resource, not only for

562 4Do _ 48° ~ so 50 . France 5_ do 3° 2° a.... I.: :::::::: ::::::::::: ::::::] ~ ant... 2.2222~ ~ . .:.:. .:.. ..:: . . . ... :~ ~., ~ I:: :~.: :.:: .: : :.~: :..:~... :: :~.: :..:. :::. :..: . ...:.: .:.:.: .: i:::::::::: :\ ~ ~'>~:~:~='i~i2"2"2222 ~ Jersey C~~ ECU 1#~'~ Wreck site ~, .~ Bay at Abers of Lannion Crest Morla~x at. ,.. ~_\ St. Br.euc Brittany 0 2S km Lorient at,\ FIGURE A-7 Hor izontal extent of oil movement from the Amoco Cadiz spill as determined by chemical analyses on water samples and f rom visual observations by overflights and scientific cruises. SOURCE: Gundlach et al . (1983 ~ . Br ittany in terms of the valuable oyster-culture industry in the two tidal rivers of the area, but also in terms of the valuable tourist industry, attracted to the long sandy beaches. The tanker suffered steer ing failure 13 km north of the Ile d'Ouessant, in the English Channel west of the Brittany coast (e.g., Hess, 1978~. Her cargo was 120,000 tons of light Iranian crude oil and 100,000 tons of light Arabian crude, as well as the remainder of her Bunker fuel. The tanker grounded at high tide on rocks north of Portsall, within sight of the shore. As the tide ebbed, the ship broke in two, rel easing 50 ,000 tons of oil from 4 of her 12 cargo tanks dur ing the following day . Th is oil was dr iven ashore by a s bong nor thwest wind (O' Sullivan, 1978) (Figure A-7 ~ . As the tanker continued to break up and r elease oil, the wind drove the oil further into the English Channel and further east along the coast, Almost 200 km from the wreck by March 25. Winds then shifted north and east, which drove the oil into formerly protected areas. In all, the spill resulted in oiling of up to cat 300 km of Brittany coastl ine .

563 e x Imum oll No oil 11, ~j .~Abere ~~~~~ In water column (forte) N it! _ Onshore (tone) 1 ~ ~ . Onshore (kilometers of shoreline) |~\ |~\ \'--~ ~ 8ubtide1 sediments (tone) fit \1 \ ·. NearehOr ~ \ ' \ I\ ~ · . \ | \ , Tanro I t-t- it NNN ~ . .~........ . ~ . . , 11078 1979 1980 198, FIGURE A-8 Pattern of the pers istence of Amoco Cadiz oil in coastal waters and sediments of Br ittany, France, Apr z1 1978 to Apr. il 1981. SOURCE: Gundlach et al. (1983~. Oil Fate The oil released from the Amoco Cadiz was converted to a reddish-brown water-in-oil emulsion (mousse) by tide and wave-induced mixing with water entering the ruptured tanks. Emulsification was very rapid, and no authentic cargo oil sample could be obtained. Adjacent to the wreck, mousse contained 40-60% water, whereas mousse collected from the beach con ta ined up to 7 5 % water . Concentrations of oil in the water column var fed rather widely, but for several weeks immediately following the tanker breakup, much of the water column along the Brittany north coast was contaminated with oil (3-20 ug/L offshore, 2-200 ug/L nearshore, and 30-500 ug/L in estuar ies) (e .g ., Marchand and Caprais , 1979 , 1981) . Concentrations in the English Channel itself decreased to near-background levels dur ing the following to 2-3 months . Concentrations in the estuar ies remained elevated for some time thereat ter . Changes in the spilled oil have been extensively analyzed and documented (e.g., Gundlach et al., 1983~. Evaporation of the more volatile components is thought to have car r fed from 20% to 40% of the spilled oil from the sea surface into the atmosphere (Figure A-8. The Amoco Cadiz apparently differed from other similar spills in that the - amount of the cargo that eventually became entrapped or incorporated into the water column was greater than seen elsewhere, probably because of the h igher wave energy and the ver tical mixing of the water column typifying that par t of the Engl ish Channel . This greater incorporation of the oil into the water column is also probably the reason for the unexpectedly h igh mortality of subtidal organisms.

564 A considerable portion of the oil that did come ashore, and that was not removed manually in a massive cleanup campaign, eventually became either buried in the sediments (Long et al., 1981) or entrapped in the low energy salt marshes and estuaries (see below) (also, Boehm et al., 1982; Gundlach et al., 1983) . Impact on Biota Birds Birds were migrating through the area at the time of the spill, and over 4 ,SOO oiled birds were recovered (Hope-Jones et al., 1978), 3 , 200 dead on the beaches (Hess, 1978) . Of the 33 species found dead, most were alcids and cormorants. Of these, the former belong to three species considered rare in France. Cause of death in these birds is not known with certainty. Analyses of specimens representing four species oiled dur ing the incident showed Amoco Cadiz oil in only one, the common shag (Phalacrocorax ar istotelis), ~ ndicating that the others may have died from physical effects of the oil on the birds (Lawler et al., 1981) . Measurements of aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase (AHH) levels in tissues from several oiled birds (three species) showed sixfold higher levels of AHH in birds collected from a bird-clean ing station near Brest in compar ison with birds from the same species collected offshore from Nova Scotia (Vandermoulen, 1978) . Plank ton Decreases in biomass of phytoplankton, as measured by chlorophyll-a content, were observed for several weeks in the if ediate vicinity of the wreck and in the highly contaminated tidal rivers, the Aber Benoit and Aber Wrach. In contrast, at a further distance from the wreck the phytoplank ton production was elevated, perhaps stimulated as a result of either low levels of petroleum hydrocarbons in the water column or a result of nutrient release from oiled dead organisms (Aminot and Kerouel, 19 7 8 ~ . Zooplankton experienced high mortalities, but not until about 20 days after the wreck, The Aber Benoit ri`?er contained large amounts of zooplankton deter is, coinciding with h igh oil levels, and the surviving copepod Temora longicorr~is showed depressed levels of digestive enzymes. Seventy days later the biomass showed no signs of recovery (Samain et al., 1979~. The effect on the digestive er~zymes in these pelagic zoo- plankton persisted into 1979 in the areas that continued to exhibit elevated levels of oil in the water (Marchand and Caprais, 1981; Samain et al., 1981~. Fish There was some mortality of fish, generally within 10 km of the wreck, and consisting mainly of rock f ish, gobies, and one gadid species .

565 Mortalities among co~runercially important species were insignificant (Hess, 1978 ~ . Growth of flatfish, plaice, and sole in the oiled rivers was gradually reduced in the year of the spill (Conan and Fr iha, 1981) . The effect was greatest among the younger sole and in the adult plaice. Thus young sole grew at only 30% of their normal rate. Also, up to 80% of the examined flatfish showed fin rot, up to 9 months after the spill. This decreased to about 10% over the following 11 months (Conan and Friha, 1981~. One study, involving eels from a harbor that was very heavily oiled at the time of the spill, showed a variety of physiological and histopathological abnormalities in gills, ovaries, and kidneys. Although it is difficult to relate these abnormalities directly to the oiling from the AmOCO Cadiz, 2-8 months earlier, such changes are characteristic of many vertebrates subjected to long term stress (Lopez et al., 1981) . Benthos Oil reached the bottom over a large area, including both the bottom sediments of the tidal rivers and a large portion of the western English Channel. In places it penetrated to a depth of 7 cm, with highest concentrations found in the muddy sediments. In one area of the Engl ish Channel, ampel isc id amph mods, compr is ing ca . 4 0 % of the bottom biomass in f ine sand sediments, were totally eliminated. The absence of upstream "seeds populations lessens the chances of their replacement (Cabioch et al. , 19801 . Inshore there was massive mortality of some species such as heart urchins, razor clams, and the amphipod Bathypore-ia (Hess, 1978) . Other species, such as the clam Tellina teniu and the polychaete Owenia survived. However, T. fabula gradually disappeared in the 2 years after the wreck. In the tidal r iver s there was a strong correlation between the benthic populations and sediment-hydrocarhon concentrations. At less than 50 ug/g oil, there was a reduction in total numbers of animals, but with no evidence of a change in population structure. At higher concentrations of oil, 100-1,000 ~g/g, one observed the appearance of certain opportunistic polychaete species such as Cirratulids and Spionids. At the highest levels of pollution, over 10 ,000 ug/g, only the Cirratulids and Capitellids were present (Glemarec and Hussenot, 1981 ) . This pattern of community response to the presence of oil in the benthic sediments is similar to that observed near sources of heavy industr ial and urban pollution and has also been observed at other spills (see Sanders , 1978 ; Sanders et al., 1980) . These various observations suggest that in some par ts of the Br ittany coastl ine the oil contamination in the sediments has approached the limits of biological response and recovery. ATnoco Cadiz oil has been found in the tissues of a broad range of benthic organisms, although both tbe concentrations and the rates of depuration, i.e., disappearance from the tissues, vary widely. Thus, although both Japanese and flat oysters showed contamination up to 3

566 months after the spill, the flat oysters were almost clean of oil 9 months later. The Japanese oysters, however, remained heavily con- taminated at that time (Laseter et al., 1981~. Inter tidal Communities The most exposed sites, the rocky shores, were protected from oil by reflected waves. Fucus sp. generally suffered little damage from the oil in either appearance or growth, except where they were damaged by cleanup operations (Topinka and Tucker, 1981~. There was some local mortality, but on the whole these rockweeds fared well. On sheltered rocky shores Ascophyllum was killed and replaced by Fucus as long as there were Fucus plants in the immediate vicinity to provide the sporelings. A variety of intertidal rocky shore animals were killed, especially limpets and periwinkles. Sandy beaches retained oil as buried layers for several years after the spill, for the oil came ashore during the transition in beach profile from the erosional slope to the beach depositional period. Beaches were littered with dead animals immediately after the spill, including both intertidal and subtidal species. Exposed intertidal mudflats had almost their entire fauna killed by oil from the water column (Chasse, 1978~. In more sheltered areas the lugworm Arenicola was commonly found alive after the spill (Gundlach et al., 1981~. Marshes and other low energy environments were severely affected where oil came ashore , with complete kill of higher plants and animals. There was no recovery in 2 years at the most heavily oiled sites (Gundlach et al. , 1981) . The edges of marshes and rivers were found to be especially retentive of oil, with concentrations 5-10 times higher than found in oiled mudflats (Vandermoulen, 19811. Part of the Ile Grande salt marsh was subjected to a massive cleanup effort involv- ing both manual and mechanized labor to remove oiled debris, resulting in increased drainage and erosional drainage velocities through the marsh. Heavy traffic through the marsh primary drainage channel further weakened the channel's bottom sediment structure, enhancing the erosion of the fine sediments . The combined results were so large a change of the system that several decades plus active conservation measures may be required for return to the prespill conditions by natural depositional processes (Long and Vandermeolen, 1979, 1983~. An active recolonization program is under way in the Ile Grande marsh, involving transplanting of marsh vegetation from other nonoiled marshes (Levasseur and Jory, 1982) and from nurseries established in other coastal areas (Seneca and Broome, 1982) . The approach appears to be successful, especially with applications of fertilizers, but full recovery is estimated to take several years, both because of slow growth and because of the sensitivity of some of the plants toward the oil persisting in much of the sediments.

567 AN UNDERWATER BLOWOUT: THE IXTOC I The Ixtoc I (Atwood, 1980; Brooks et al., 1978) produced the largest man-made oil spill in history, but unlike a tanker acci dent, the blowout r eleased an estimated half mid 1 ion tons of oil into an open ocean/ continental shelf environment, over a period of 9 months. There had been no studies of tropical oil spills in any great detail before 1979, and the little work that had been done was directed toward the impacts on the intertidal zone. The little work done previously on the fate of oil in the open ocean had been related largely to the occurrence of pelagic tar e The long r elease per iod of Ixtoc I , however, allowed scientists to prepare for more detailed physical and chemical studies than have generally been possible in the case of the tanker spills. In the end, the blowout studies greatly augmented the understanding of the fate of oil on the open ocean. Less was learned, from this instance, about the impact of the spilled oil on living resources of the environment. Oil Fate The oil emerged in a plume, together with natural gas, from the top of the blowout pr eventer some 3 8 m beneath the sur face and 14 m above the sea floor, in the Bay of Campeche in Mexican waters (Figure A-91. The turbulent flow mixed the oil and water to form an emulsion of about 709c water suspended in oil, the familiar "chocolate mousse. " At the surface a gas f ire burned continually, consuming some of the lighter- molecular-weight compounds (less than Cry. The upwelling gas formed a relatively stable burning core of f ire (Figure A-10 ~ with an approximate diameter of 25-30 m and occasional bursts up to 80-m diameter . Outside the burning area, the upwelling oil plume formed an oil slick of less than 1-~ thickness in a circular area of 300 m. Evaporation further reduced many of the low ends (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1983) . Within this area and up to 3,000 m downstream, the water contained a milky suspension of f ine oil-in-water emulsion which rose to the surface during some of the scientific observations (Haegh and Rossemyr, 1980 ~ . The combination of water circulation and wind resulted in a general movement of large patches of oil slick and mousse, of several to tens of meters across, toward the west-northwest along the coast of Mexico toward the coast of Texas during July and August 1977 (Figure A-9~. Although physical oceanographic knowledge of the area was not as extensive as might be desirable for the best models of oil slick movement, the forecast estimates of general direction and rate of movement of the patches of mousse and slicks were reasonably accurate as a result of the use of combinations of satellite imagery, aircraft overflights, ship observations, and previous data on average currents and meterological conditions {Galt, 1981) . However, in September 1979, several severe tropical storms traversed the Gulf of Mexico, and the r exulting temporary changes in winds and surface currents resulted in the transport of on slicks and mousse to the north and northeast and

568 U.S.A. - -a - - __ 80° , . ' . 1 ' '. '' it- '"'''N . ,,ir ' , ,:T . :::\ '%_.` ~ . . .~ . : ~ Laguna Madre Boo 20° ..; ~ .... Tam,~!co ~ : ,': ., . 1 ... ~ ~ .:. , . ~I.; Gulf of Mexico ,~ IXTOC I i~mpeche ~ Veracruz I_ Cormen :. Frontera - a.: : Mexico id---= ::..1 lo' ! Belize = ~ iGuctema~ . ~ lo Honduras Boo 30° ':') I'. .'': ' "."\ `1.. . ..\ 4:. ' '\ \:. ...) J Miami ~20° Jamaica 80° FIGURE A-9 Location of the Ixtoc I blowout and the initial path of the s 1 ick movements . SOURCE: Adapted from Ross et al. (1980~. then to the south (Atwood et al., 19803. Then the usual seasonal flow conditions of late fall to early winter returned, with the oil moving south and southwest followed again in January with flow to the northwest (Galt, 19811. The well was f inally capped on 23 March, 1980. Estimates of the volume of spilled oil vary considerably, from 454 ,000 to over 1.4 million tons due to uncertainties of estimating flow from the fractured well over such a long period of time. Estimates of the amount burned vary from 30% (Ross et al., 1979) to as much as 50% (Haegh and Rossemyr, 1980~. Less than 10% were recovered. Large amounts of dispersants were used on slicks approaching within 25 miles (30 km) of the Mexican coastline. None was used north of 20°N. An intensive sampling and analysis effort near the well site in September 1979 (Atwood, 1980 ~ showed that relatively high concentra- tions of gas, volatile liquid hydrocarbons, and high-molecular-weight compounds were transported subsurface away from the well site for distances up to 20-30 km. The oil slick on the surface changed appearance with increasing distance from the well. Concentration of

569 1/2-1 Kt oil slick emulsion (70% water, 30°/0 oil viscosity: 350 cp thickness I - 3mm colour: tan to rust aDDrox. 30% of oil burning:::: :A`~ l l l !_ 500m ............................... : flames 7m high ·:: :~:: ::: :~:j~ I SOm -lo' diameter of fire 400 m ·' flame 7m high small surface fire oil slick Sl.Sm 4,,,,,,,,,~^,,,,,,-,.... 'art oil and gas plume blowout 1 FIGURE A-10 Schematic diagram of the Ixtoc I blowout. SOURCE: Ross et al. (1980)

570 oil slick s by Langmu ir circulation cells and evaporative weather iris resulted in the formation of windrows of mousse several meters wide and hundreds of meters long and globs of mousse a few centimeters in d iameter . Patches of mousse up to 2 0-30 m in length and width and up to a meter thick were observed outside the main slick. The mechanism of formation for these large patches is not known, but microbial and photochemical processes may be involved in addition to surface currents and evaporation. Similar patches or rafts of mousse were observed off the coast of Texas in association with slicks, and some of these came ashore in Texas . Chemical analys is r evealed that there were s till significant amounts of substituted naphthalenes, phenar~threnes, and dibenzothiophenes remaining in samples of mousse off the coast of Texas (Patton et al., 1981) . Thus, formation of mousse seems to provide a mechanism for delivery of toxic aromatic oil components to areas long distances from the site of a spill. Analyses for hydrocarbons of sediments near the well site showed that no more than 0. 5-3 % of the spilled oil eventually became associated with the bottom sediments in the blowout area. However, there were considerable difficulties with quantitative sampling of the surface "floe" (fine bottom sediments) at the sediment-water interface (Boehm et al., 1982) . Between 6 August and 13 September 1979 approximately 3 ,000-4 ,000 metr ic tons of oil were deposited onshore in Texas, mainly on the beaches . On 13 September a tropical depress ion passed through the area and some of the oil was removed from the beaches to the near-shore zone (Gundlach and Finkelstein, 1982~. Impact on Biota Most of the information on the effects of this blowout on biota comes from U.S. studies on the northern side of the Gulf . At the pres en t time there is very little information about the effects nearer the spill site, in Mexican waters and coastal systems. Microbes Research on microbial degradation of the spilled oil near the well site was instructive. Hydrocarbon-utilizing bacteria populations were several orders of magnitude higher in samples associated with mousse compared to mousse-free water. Within 25 km of the well site, in the slick and mousse area, the normal microbial populations shifted to a community capable of degrading hydrocarbons, but nutrients were limiting in these Gulf of Mexico waters (Atlas et al., 1982; Pfaender et al., 1980~. Thus, little microbial degradation of the oil was noted. This result is in agreement with chemical analyses data (Boehm et al., 1982~. In summary, the ma jor processes acting on the Ixtoc oil, removing it from the environment, appeared to be physical-chemical weather ing .

571 Seab irds and Tur ties No data are available on the impact of the spilled oil on seabird co~T~nunities and populations of the bay . With respect to sea tur tie populations in the area, age in no data are ava ilable . Because there were concerns that the Atlantic Ridley turtle hatchlings would be affected when they went to the sea after hatching in sandy beaches on Padre Island, some 9 ,000 hatchlings were retained ashore until late July in a preventive measure. No mortality was observed after the hatchlings left the beach, but this would be very difficult to verify. Whatever the impact, even i f th is year-class is low in number s when i t returns after 8 years, one can do little more than speculate about the possible link to the Ixtoc I blowout (Oil Spill Intelligence Report, 1980 ) . Plank ton No data are available on the biological effects in the water column. Fish and Shr imp Data on fish and shrimp are sketchy and not always credible. There are reports of changes in fish catch from Mexican fishermen, believed to be a result of fish avoidance of the traditional f ishery areas due to the presence of the oil (Oil Spill Intelligence Report, 19801. Other than this, there are no published data on effects on fish or fish larvae. Faint petroleum odors were detected in some shrimp samples, suggesting contamination (Woods and Hannah, 1981) . Shr imp samples were taken for analysis of petroleum hydrocarbons, but the results are not yet available . Benthos Li ttle, i f any, Ixtoc oil could be detected in sur face sediments on the South Texas outer continental shelf by grab sample techniques. However, sorbent pad samples detected Ixtoc oil associated with a mobile sedimen- tary material nepheloid in the so-called nepheloid layer, consisting of fine suspended particles in the water overlying the bottom (Boehm et al., 1982~. A total of 72 grab samples were taken in 1980 from the South Texas shelf area were sorted for benthic ecology studies, and compared to earlier data from 1976 and 1977. There is no doubt that there were major decreases in numbers of taxa and numbers of individuals at the 12 stations sampl ed (Lewbel et al., 1982) . However, no quantitative cause and effect relationship with the Ixtoc oil spill can be established because of the gaps in sampling between 1977 and 1979 and the lack of sufficient data on life histor ies and normal cycles of abundance for benthic infauna of the area.

572 Intertidal and Subtidal Communities The macroinfauna, along the Texas coast, dominated by polychaetes and haustoriid amphipods, showed decreases in population density but not a parallel decrease in numbers of species. The changes may have been due to the Ixtoc I oil, but hurricanes, seasonal changes, and cleanup tech- niques (dispersants) may also have been responsible (Tbobeau et al., 1981~. However, it should be noted that other studies in the Gulf region do not show any effect of storms on these organisms. AN ONSHORE l'ROPICAL SPILL: THE ZOE COLOCOTRON I The Zoe Colocotroni (Nadeau and Bergquist, 1977; Tosterson, 1977) spill represents one of the few tropical spills that has received any scientific attention. As a result, little is known about the potential impact of oil on tropical ecosystems, especially the common mangrove and coral reef communities, which constitute a large part of the tropical marine coastline. The tanker Zoe Colocotroni ran aground off LaParguera, Puerto Rico, on 18 March 1973. In order to free the vessel, about 5,000 tons of crude oil were pumped overboard. An estimated 60% of this crude oil was subsequently swept into Bahia Sucia, off the extreme southwestern tip of Puerto Rico. There the oil impacted the sea grass beds, mangrove communities, and lagoons. Oil Fate Four years later (1977) much of the oil had disappeared, but some still remained on the west side of Bahia Sucia. Analyses showed this to be highly weathered (Page et al., 1979~. Follow-up work, in 1978 and 1979, showed that Zoe Colocotroni oil, apparently unaltered, still persisted in some areas. Tarry residues were found in the bottom ooze of largely shallow salt lagoons. Droplets of tar were readily dislodged when the soft bottom sediments were disturbed. Once on the surface of the lagoon water these tar droplets slowly formed sheens of oil . As ide from such tarry deposits, however, it appears that most of the stranded Zoe Colocotroni oil had undergone extensive weathering. Analyses of oil sediments from all impacted environments showed extensive degradation of the lower-molecular-weight hydrocarbons, presumably because of high microbial activity. Leaching out of soluble alkanes and of the smaller aromatic components by tidal waters may also be a factor in these environments (Gilfillan, personal communication) . Impact on Biota An initial assessment of the impact of the Zoe Colocotron i on biological communities of the area showed large numbers of dead sea cucumbers, conchs, prawns, sea urchi ns, and polychaete annelids washed

573 ashore (Nadeau and Bergquist, 1977)0 Dead and dying organisms were also found in offshore sea grass beds (Thalassia). The sea grass beds themselves also suffered from contact with the oil entrained into the water column by the action of the surf. Leaves turned brown and black, and a considerable amount of Thalassia died and was removed by wave action. The oil also had an acute effect on the mangrove communities, with the red mangrove most severely affected, together with the fauna 1 iving in the mangrove prop root environments . Subsequen t surveys of the impacted area have shown marked changes in the affected faunal and floral communities. By 1976 about 1 ha of red mangroves had become defoliated and eventually died, presumably through suffocation of the specialized aer ial prop roots by oil . Apparently, however, degradation of spilled, stranded oil in tropical environments occurs at a greater rate than in more temperate climates, as suggested by chemical analyses of oil from the Bahia Sucia sediments. A similar rate of biological recovery appears to be occurring, except for the impacted red mangrove conununities in which, at the time of the most recent survey (1979), the faunal composition was still marked by the presence of opportunistic polychaete species (Gilf illan et al., 1981) . In general, changes in faunal composition appeared to be related to the degree of weather ing of oil, which ire turn is related to water movement over the sediments. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION Clearly, these spills differed markedly in their extent and impact, much being dependent on meteorological conditions operating at the time of the spill . Thus, for example, the Arrow' s spilled oil eventually washed out into the open Atlantic, but not before all of the Chedabucto Bay coastline had been heavily oiled under the influence of prevailing easterlies and southeasterlies. The coastline of Massachusetts escaped this fate 6 years later when the Argo Merchant ran aground on the Nantucket Shoal, largely because of offshore winds operating for most of the postspill per iod. On the other hand, Amoco Cadiz oil remained near the Brittany coast for several weeks under the action of the shifting northeasterly and northwesterly winds. The IXtoc I blowout presented problems of a prolonged underwater oil spill source into a large coastal circulation system. The Zoe Colocotroni spill in general parallels the Flor Ida spill in its impact on benthic communities and in long term oiling of soft lagoon al sediments. Its differences lie pr imar fly in the higher temperatures found in the tropical environment, which appear to hasten the breakdown of spilled oil. Or the other hand, the Zoe Colocotroni presented two new features of oil spills: oiling of sea grass beds and impact on mangrove communities. Biological impacts var. fed as did the oil fates, from the long term problems still encountered in benthic communities at the Florida site to the virtual absence of observed effects on biota from the Ixtoc I, although the latter in large part reflects the absence of biological studies. Low energy coastal environments appear to be particularly vulnerable to the effects of oil and to oil entrapment, as was seen at

574 the Florida, Arrow, Zoe Colocotroni, and Amoco Cadiz spills. They also demonstrate the persistence of both the oil and its effects, especially in association with soft sediments (see also Teal and Howarth, 1983), in some instances for over a decade (Arrow, Flor ida) . However, as noted elsewhere in this report, oiled environments do clean themselves, and there appear to exist in all cases briefly examined here, mechanisms of oil degradation and biological recovery with the potential for eventual complete recovery. If one were to rank the various factors that can influence the potential impact and persistence of oil in these various spills, then clearly, biological impact is linked closely to the extent and duration of oiling (e.g., Florida, Amoco Cadiz). In this respect, the low energy lagoonal environments appear to be most susceptible for long term impact. Another, generally unexplored, factor seems to be the rate of release of spilled oil, with the rate of oil spillage being related to spill impact. For example, the Amoco Cadiz spilled approximately 100,000 tons over 1-2 days, while the Ixtoc I blowout spilled about the same amount in about 2 months. Tne Santa Bar oar a Channel seep, on the other hand, released about that amount over the course of a century or more. While there are, of-course, many differences between these three spills, one would expect qualitative differences in their impact, just because of the different release rates. Together these five examples of tanker spills have introduced about 270,000 tons of crude, Bunker C, and No. 2 fuel oils into the world's oceans, plus at least twice that amount from the Ixtoc I blowout (estimated variously at between 454,000 and 1,400,000 tons). Remnants of this oil can still be found in five out of the six (the Argo Merchant's cargo disappeared from view totally). Remnants of their effects can also Still be measured, in terms of numbers of biota and in depression of certain metabolic parameters, at the sites of the Florida, Arrow, Zoe Colocotroni, and the Amoco Cadiz, and perhaps at the IXtoc ~ . , I. Of these, the impact on seabird populations at the Amoco Cadiz site has undeniably been the most dramatic. A disastrous effect on the bird population had been feared in the case of the Amoco Cadiz, but it did not materialize, suggesting that the survival potential of seabirds, at least for the eastern North Atlantic populations, is quite good (see also Chapter 5, Impact on Seabird Populations section). In none of these examples has a widespread, immediate impact on fish populations been observed, nor generally on the pelagic plankton communities. By far the most persistent impact is found instead in the intertidal and subtidal benthic communities, where long term perturbations can be found several years after the spill. Where the oil has become stranded on coastlines, such impact can extend to the ecological balance and stability of the coastlines as well as to economic resources, as in the case of the impacted oyster mariculture of northern Brittany (Amoco Cadiz, Maurin, 19811. One major feature of oil spills, which has not received much attention and remains an enigma, is the fate of nonstranded oil. Of the volume of oil spilled by the tankers discussed here, about 165,000 tons (60~) did not come ashore but is largely unaccounted for, having

575 TABLE A-1 Estimates of the Distr ibution of Oil Spilled from the Tanker s Ar row, Zoe Colocotron i, and the Amoco Cadiz ~. . Tanker Distr ibution Tons Percentage , Arrow" In tanker pr for to casualty Removed by pumping Remaining in hull 15,000 5,432 168 Ashore in Chedabucto Bay1,895 At the surface within Chedabucto Bay21 At depth with in Chedabucto Bay? Evaporated? Swept ou t into the Atlantic 8,421 Zoe Colocotronib Pumped overboard5, 000 Ashore in Bahia Sucia3,00060 At sea/evaporated2, 00040 Amoco CadizC Total spilled223,000 - Subtidal sediments18,0008 Onshore62, 00028 Water column30,00013.5 Biodegraded10,0004.5 Evaporated67 ,00030 Unaccounted for 46,000 20.5 Canon (1970 ~ . tNadeau and Bergquist (1977~. undlach et al . (1983 ~ . either evaporated into the atmosphere or dispersed or dissolved into the water column. In addition, most of the spilled oil from the Ixtoc I blowout remains either at sea or in the atmosphere. Little can be said about this signif i cant portion of the spilled tonnage, for there exist at present no data to enable us to assess either its fate or its degradation rate in the open ocean. The largest gap in ache data to date. Estimates made at the time of the Arrow spill were at best crude (Table A-1), but they have not been refined significantly, and no estimates exist for the Florida, Argo Merchant or Ixtoc I. For the Zoe Colocotroni . only the s imulest ~, _ _ _ absence of a spill budget (mass balance ~ is probably the s ingle estimate exists for oil lost into the water column, 40% (Nadeau and Bergquist, 1977) . The best attempt at an oil budget available is probably that calculated for the Amoco Cadiz (Table A-1) . However, even these figures, based in part on chemical analyses and in part on theoretical extrapolations, remain estimates at best.

576 As a large por tion of the oil spilled to date, whether from tanker s or from other discharges, appears never to have reached shorelines (where amounts and effects can be assessed to some extent), the fate, and ultimate impact of the oil presents a large set of questions to be answered . REFERENCES Aminot , A., and R. Kerouel . 1978 . Premier s resultats sur 1-hydrolog ie , 1 'oxygene dissous et les pigments photosynthetiques en Manch Occidentale apres 1 'echouage de 1 'Amoco Cadiz, pp . 51-68 . In Conan e t al ., eds. Amoco Cadiz: Consequences d 'une pollution . accidentelle par les hydrocarbures . CNEXO, Par is . Anon. 1970. Report of the Task Force--Operation Oil (Cleanup of the Arrow oil spill in Chedabucto Bay). Vols. I, II, III, IV. Canadian Min ister of Transpor t. Atlas, R. M., G. E. Roubal, A. Bronner, and T. R. Haines . 1982 . Biodegradation of hydrocarbons in mousse from the Ixtoc ~ wel 1 bl owout. Amer ican Chemical Society, Washington, D. C. ~ in press ~ . Atwood, D.K., convener. 1980. Proceedings, Symposium on Preliminary Scientific Results From the Researcher/Pierce Cruise to the Ixtoc I . Blowout. U.S. Department of Co~unerce, National Oceanic and Atmospher ic Administration , Boulder, Colo. 591 pp. Atwood , D. K., J . A . Ben jamin, and J.W. Farrington. 1980. The mission of the September 1979 Researcher/Pierce Ixtoc I cruise and the . . physical situation encountered. In Proceedings of a Symposium on Preliminary Scientific Results From the Researcher/Pierce ~xtoc I Cruise. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Marine Pollution Assessment, Washington, D. C. Boehm, P., A.D. Wait, D.L. Fiest, and D. Pilson. 1982. Chemical assessment-hydrocarbon analyses, Section 2. Ixtoc Oil Spill Assessment Final Report. Contract AA851-CTO-71. Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. Brooks, J.M., B.B. Bernard, T.C. Saner, Jr., and H.A. Reheim. 1978. Environmental aspects of a well blowout in the Gulf of Mexico. Environ. Sci . Technol . 12: 695-703 . Burns, K.A. 1976b. Microsomal mixed function oxidases in an estuar ine f ish, Fundulus heteroclitus, and their induction as a result of environmental contamination. Comp. Biochem. Physiol . 53B: 443-446 . Burns, K.A., and J.M. Teal. 1979. The West Falmouth oil spill; hydrocarbons in the saltmarsh ecosystem. Estuarine Coastal Mar. Sci . 8: 349-360 . Cabioch , L., J . C. Dauvin , J . Mora Bermudez , and C . Rodr iguez Babio . 1980. Effets de la maree noire de l' Amoco Cadiz sur le benthos sublittoral du nord de la Bretagne. Helgolander Meeresunters. 33: 192-208 . Chasse, C. 1978. The ecological impact on and near shores by the Amoco Cadiz oil spill . Mar . Pollut . Bull . 9: 298-30 ~ .

577 Conan , G., and M. Fr iha . 1981. Effets des pollutions par les hydrocarbures du patroller Amoco Cadiz sur la croissance des soles et des plies dans 1'estuaire de l'Aber Benoit, pp.749-773. In G. Conan et al., eds. Amoco Cadiz: Consequences d'une pollution accidentelle par les hydrocarbures. CNEXO, Paris. Conan, G., L. d'Ozouville, and M. Marchand, eds. 1978. Amoco Cadiz: Preliminary Observations of the Oilapill Impact on the Mar ine Environment. Actes de Collogues 6 . CNEXO, Par is . Conan, G., L. Laubier, M. Marchand, and L. d 'Ozouville, eds . 1981 . Amoco Cadiz: consequences d 'une pollution acc~dentelle par les - hydrocarbures. CNEXO, Paris. 881 pp. Conover, R.J. 1971. Some relat~ons between zooplank ton and Bunker C oil in Chedabucto Bay following the wreck of the tanker Arrow, J. Fish . Res . Board Can . 28 :1327-1330 . Cornillon, P. 1978. Oil droplet measurements made in the wake of the Argo Merchant, pp. 43-47. Tn M.P. Wilson, J.G. Quinn, and K. Sherman, eds. In the Wake of the Argo Merchant. Center Ocean Management Studies, University of Rhode Island, Kingston. Galt , J. A. 1981. Transport, distribution, and physical characteristics of the oil. Part ~ . Offshore movement and distr ibutior`, pp. 13-39 . In C. Hooper, ed. The Ixtoc I Oil Spill : The Federal Scientific Response . U. S. Depar tment of Commerce, National Ocean ic and Atmospher ic Admin istration, Of f ice of Mar ine Pollution Assessment, Wash ington, D. C. Gilfillan, EaSe ~ and J.H. Vandermenlen. 1978. Alterations in growth and physiology of soft shell clams, Mya arenaria, chronically oiled with Bunker C from Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia, 1970-76. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 35:630-636. Gilf illan , E . S., D. S . Page , R. P. Gerber, S . Hanson , J. Cooley , and J . Hothan. 1981. Fate of the Zoe Colocotroni oil spill and its effects on infaunal co~maunities associated with mangroves, pp. 353-360. In Proceedings, 1981 Oil Spill Conference. API Publication 4334. Amer ican Petroleum Institute, Washington, D. C. Glemarec, M., and E. Hussenot. 1981. Definition d'une succession ecologique en milieu meuble anormalement enrich) en matieres' organiques a la suite de la catastrophe de l' Amoco Cadiz, pp. 499-512. In Amoco Cadiz: Fate and Effects of the Oil Spill. CNEXO, Par is . Gordon, D.C., and P. Michalik. 1971. Concentration of Bunker C fuel oils in waters of Chedabucto Bay, April 1971. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 28 :1912-1914. Grose, P.L., and J.S. Mattson. 1977. The Argo Merchant oil spill: a preliminary scientific report. NDAA special Report. NTIS PB-267-S05 . National Technical Information Ser~rice, Spr ingf ield, Va. 133 pp. Gundlach, E. R., and K.J. Finkelstein. 1982. Transport, distr ibution and physical character istics of the oil . lI . Near shore movement and distr ibution, pp . 41-73 . In C. Hooper, ed. The IXtoc I Oil Spill: The Federal Scientific Response. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospher ic Administration, Off ice of Mar ine Pollution Assessment, Washington, D. C.

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579 Wake of the Argo Merchant. Center for Ocean Management Studies, University of Rhode Island, Kingston. Long , B.F.N., and J.H. Vandermsulen . 1979 . Impact of cleanup efforts on an oiled saltmarsh in Nor th BE ittany. Spill Technol . Newslett. 4~4) :218-229. Long , B. F.N., and J. H. Vandermaulen . 1983. Geomorphological impact of clean-up of an oiled salt-marsh tile Grande). In Proceedings, 1983 Oil Spill Conference . API Publication . Amer ican Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C. In press . Long , B . F. N., J. H. Vandermoulen , and T. P. Ahern . 1981 . The evolution of stranded oil within sandy beaches. In Proceedings, 1983 Oil Spill Conference. American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C. Pp. 519-524 . Longwell, A.C. 1978. Field and laboratory measurements of stress responses at the chromosome and cell levels in planktonic f ish eggs and the oil problem, pp. 116-125. In M.P. Wilson, J.G. Quinn, and K. Sherman, eds. In the Wake of the Argo Merchant. Center for Ocean Management, University of Rhode Island, Kingston. Lopez , E ., J . Leloup-Hatey , A. Hardy , F . Lall ier , E . Mar belly , P . D . Oudot, and Y.A. Fontaine. 1981. Modifications histopathologiques et stress chez des anguilles soumises a une exposition prolonged aux hYdrocarbures, PP. 645-653. In Conan et al., eds. Amoco Cadiz: Consequences d'une pollution accidentelle par les hydrocarbures. CNEXO, Par is . MacDonald, B.A., and M.L.H. Thomas. 1982. Growth reduction in the soft-shell clam ~ arenaria from a }heavily oiled lagoon in Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia. Mar . Environ. Res. 6 :145-156 . Marchand, M., and M.-P. Caprais. 1979. Suivi chimique de la pollution de 1 'Amoco Cadiz dens 1 'eau de mer et led sediments marine en Manche Occidentals, Mars 1978-Mars 1979. Rapport I;,terne Centre Oceanologique de Bretagne . CNEXO, Par is . 103 pp. Marchand, Il., and M.-P. Caprais . 1981. Suivi de la pollution de 1'Amoco Cadiz dans 1'eau de mer et les sediments marine, pp. 23-54. In Amoco Cadiz: Fates and Ef feats of the Oil Spill . CNEXO, Par is . National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Proceedings of a Symposium on Preliminary Results From the September 1979 Researcher/Pierce Ixtoc I Cruise. U.S. Department of Commerce, Off ice of Mar ine Pollution Assessment, Washington, D. C. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1983. Assessing the Social Cost of Oil Spills: The Amoco Cadiz Case Study. Office of ocean Resources Coordination and Assessment, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C . 144 pp . Oil Spill Intelligence Report. 1980. Special Report: Txtoc I. Vol. IIT, No. 1. Oil Spill Intelligence Report. 36 pp. O 'Sullivan, A.J. 1978. The Amoco Cadiz oil ski 11. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 9~5) :123-128. Patton, J. S., M.W. Rigler, P. D. Boehm, and D. L. Fiest. 1981. Ixtoc I oil spill: flaking of surface mousse in the Gulf of Mexico. Nature 290: 235-238. Pfaender, F.K., EeN. Buckley, and R. Ferguson. 1980. Response of the pelagic microbial community to oil from the IXtoc I blowout. I. In

580 situ studies , pp . 545-562. In D. K. Atwood , convertor . Proceedings, Conference on the Preliminary Scientific Results From the Researcher/Pierce Cruise to the Ixtoc I Blowout. U. S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospher ic Administration, Boulder, Colo. Powers, K. D., and W.T. Rumage . 1978. Effect of the Argo Merchant oilspill on bird populations off the New England coast, 15 December 1976-January 1977, pp. 142-148. In M.P. Wilson, J.G. Quinn, and K. Sherman, eds. In the Wake of the Argo Merchant. Center for Ocean Management Studies, University of Rhode Island, Kingston. Pratt, S. D. 1978 . Interactions between petroleum and benthic faun at the Argo Merchant spill s ite . In M. P. Wilson, J. G. Quinn, and K. Sherman, eds. In the Wake of the Argo Merchant. Center for Ocean Management Studies, University of Rhode Island, Kingston. Ross, S. L., C.W. Ross, F. Lepine, and R. K. Langtry . 1979. Ixtoc I oil blowout. Spill Technol. Newslett. (Environ. Can. ~ July-August 1979: 245-256 . Ross , S. L., C.W. Ross , F. Lepine, and R. K. Langtry. 1980 . Ixtoc ~ oil blowout, pp. 25-40 . In D. K. Atwood, convertor. Proceedings, Conference on the Preliminary Scientific Results From the Researcher/Pierce Cruise to the Ixtoc I Blowout. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Boulder, Colo. Samain, J. F., J. Moal , J. Y. Daniel , and J. Boucher. 1979. Ecophysiological effects of oil spills from Amoco Cadiz on pelagic communities--preliminary results. In Proceedings, 1979 Oil Spill Conference. API Publication 4308. American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C. Samain, J. -F., 3. Moal, J. -R. Le Coz , J.-Y. Daniel, and A. Coum. 1981. Impact de l' Amoco Cadiz sur 1-ecophysiologie du zooplancton: une nouvelle poss ibil ite de surveillance ecologique . In Conan et al ., et al., eds. Amoco Cadiz: Consequences d'une pollution accidentelle par les hydrocarbures . CNEXO, Par is . Sanders, H. L. 1978. Florida oil spill impact on the Buzzards Bay benthic fauna: West Falmouth. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 35 ~ 5 ): 717-730 . Sander s , H. L., J . F. Grassle , and G . R. Hampson . 1972 . The West Falmouth oil spill. I. Biology. Technical Report WHOT-72-20. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, Woods Hole, Mass . 23 pp. Sanders , H. L., J. F. Grassle , G. R. Hansson , L. S. Morse , S . Pr~ce-Gartner, and C.C. Jones. 1980. Anatomy of an oil spill: long-term effects from the grounding of the barge Florida off West Falmouth, Massachusetts. J. Mar . Res . 38: 265-380 . Seneca, E. D., and S.W. Broom. 1982. Restoration of marsh vegetation impacted by the Amoco Cadiz oil spill and subsequent cleanup . operations at Ile Grande, France, pp. 363-420 . In Ecological Study of the Amoco Cadiz Oil Spill. NOAA-CNEXO Joint Sczentif ic Commission. Sherman, K., and D. Busch. 1978. Tbe Argo Merchant oil spill and the f isher ies, pp . 149-165 . In M. P. Wilson, J. G. Quinn, and K. Sherman, eds. In the Wake of the Argo Merchant. Center for Ocean Management Studies, University of Rhode Island, Kingston.

581 Sousa, G. 1970. Report of the Shellfish Warden, pp. 161-165. In Annual Report of the Finances of the Town of Falmouth for the year ending December 31, 1970. Spaulding, M. L. 1978. Surface and subsurface spill tra jectory forecasting: application to the Argo Merchant, pp. 37-42. In M. P. Wilson, J. G. Quinn, and K. Sherman, eds . In the Wake of the Argo Merchant. Center for Ocean Management Studies, University of Rhode _ Island, Kingston . Stegeman, J.J. 1978. Influence of environmental contamination on cytochrome P-450 mixed-function oxygenates in f ish: implication s for recovery in the Wild Harbor marsh. J. Fish. Res. Board Canada 35: 668-674 . Teal, J.M., and R.W. Howarth. 1983. Oil spill studies: a review of ecological effects. Environ. Manage. In press. Teal , J.M., K. Burns , and J. Farr ington. 1978 . Analyses of aromatic hydrocarbons in intertidal sediments resulting from two spills of No. 2 fuel oil in Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts . J. Fish Res . Board Can . 35 ~ 5) : 510-520 . Thebeau , L. C., J.W. Tunnell , Jr ., Q. R. Dokken , and M. E. Kindinger . 1981. Ef feats of the Ixtoc I oil spill on the inter tidal and subtidal infaunal populations along lower Texas coast bare ier island beaches, pp. 467-475. In Proceedings, 1981 Oil Spill Conference . API Publication 4334. American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D. C. Thomas, M. L. H. 1973. Effects of Bunker C oil on intertidal and lagoonal biota in Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 30~1) :83-90. Thomas, M. L. H. 1977. Long term biological effects of Bunker C oil in the intertidal zone, pp. 238-245. In D.A. Wolfe, ed. Fate and Effects of Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Marine Organisms and Ecosystems. Pergamon, New York. Thomas, M.L.H. 1978. Comparison of oiled and unoiled intertidal communities in Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia. J. Fish Res. Board Can. 3 5: 707-716 . Topinka, J.A., and L.R. Tucker. 1981. Long-term oil contamination of fucoid marcoalgae following the Amoco Cadiz oil spill, pp. 393-404. In Conan et al., eds. Amoco Cadiz: Consequences d'une pollution accidentelle par les hydrocarbures. CHEXO, Par is . Tosterson, T. R., et al . 1977. Bahai Sucia: a re-evaluation of the biota affected by petrochemical contamination in March, 1973. On iver s ity of Puer to Rico, Depar tment of Mar ine Sc fence, C . A. A. M. 13 8 pp . + appendices . Vandermoulen, J.H. 1977. The Chedabucto Bay spill--Arrow, 1970. Oceanus 20~41:31-39. Vandermeolen, J. H. 1981. Contamination des organismes marine par les hydrocarbures. Note de syntheses. In Amoco Cadiz: Fates and Effects of the Oil Spill, pp. 563-572. CNEXO, Paris.

582 Vandermeulen , J. H., and D. C . Gordon , Jr . 1976 . Re-entry of f ire year old standard Bunker C fuel oil from a low-energy beach into the water, sediments, and biota of Cbedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia. J. Fish Res. Board Can. 33~9) :2002-2010. Woods , E. G ., and R. P . Hannah . 1981 . Txtoc I oil spill--The damage assessment program and ecological impact, pp. 439-443. In Proceedings, 1981 Oil Spill Conference. Publication 4334. Amer ican Petroleum Institute, Washington, D. C.

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This comprehensive volume follows up and expands on an earlier National Academy of Sciences book. It is the result of an intensive multidisciplinary effort to assess the problems relating to petroleum-derived hydrocarbons in the marine environment. Specifically, it examines the inputs, analytical methods, fates, and effects of petroleum in the marine environment. The section on effects has been expanded significantly, reflecting the extensive scientific effort put forth in determining the effects of petroleum on marine organisms. Other topics discussed include petroleum contamination in specific geographical areas, the potential hazards of this contamination to human health, the impact of oil-related activities in the northern Gulf of Mexico, and the potential impact of petroleum on fisheries.

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