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OCR for page R1
OIL IN THE -SEA
INPUTS, FATES, AND EFFECTS
Steering Committee for the Petroleum in the Marine Environment Update
Board on Ocean Science and Policy
Ocean Sciences Board
Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and Resources
National Research Council
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C. 1985
OCR for page R2
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS 2101 Constitution Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20418
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the
National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of
Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the
committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for
appropriate balance.
This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a
Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National
Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was established by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate
the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge
and of advising the federal government. The Council operates in accordance with general policies
determined by the Academy under the authority of its congressional charter of 1863, which establishes
the Academy as a private, nonprofit, self-governing membership corporation. The Council has become
the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of
Engineering in the conduct of their services to the government, the public, and the scientific and
engineering communities. It is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. The
National Academy of Engineering and the Institute of Medicine were established in 1964 and 1970,
respectively, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 85-60541
International Standard Book Number 0-309-03479-5
Printed in the United States of America
Cover Photograph: Courtesy, Exxon Corporation and American Petroleum Institute Photographic and Film
Services.
OCR for page R3
Ocean Sciences Board
JOHN H. STEELE, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Chairman
GUSTAF O.S. ARRHENIUS, Scripps Institution of Oceanography
ALBERT W. B. ALLY, Rice University
WILLARD BASCOM, Southern California Coastal Water Research Project
ROBERT C. BEARDSLEY, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
KIRK BRYAN, Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (NOAA)
RITA R. COLWELL, University of Maryland
JOHN EDMOND, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
ROBERT M. GARRELS, University of South Florida
WILLIAM W. HAY, University of Colorado
DENNIS HAYES, Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory
JOHN IMBRIE, Brown University
PETER JUMARS, University of Washington
MARCUS G. LANGSETH, Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory
KENNETH MACDONALD, University of California, Santa Barbara
FRANK MILLERO, University of Miami
MICHAEL MULLIN, Scripps Institution of Oceanography
WORTH D. NOWLIN, JR., Texas A&M University
CHARLES OFFICER, Dartmouth College
WILLIAM G. PEARCY, Oregon State University
WILLIAM M. SACKERS, University of South Florida
FRED N. SPIESS, Scripps Institution of Oceanography
KARL TUREKIAN, Yale University
PETER VAIL, Exxon Production Research Company
WARREN WOOSTER, University of Washington (Chairman 1978-1981)
RICHARD C. VETTER, Executive Secretary
JAN VORHEES, Consultant
DORIS TAYLOR, Administrative Assistant
...
OCR for page R4
Board on Ocean Science and Policy
G ROSS HEATH, University of Washington, Chairman
D. JAMES BAKER, JR., Joint Oceanographic Institutions, Inc.
ALAN BERMAN, University of Miami
GARRY D. BREWER, Yale University
JUDITH M. CAPUZO, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
PAUL M. EYE, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
RICHARD H. GAMMON, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
EDWARD D. GOLDBERG, Scripps Institution of Oceanography
JUDITH T. KILDOW, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
JAMES J. McCARTHY, Harvard University
H. WILLIAM MENARD, JR., Scripps Institution of Oceanography
C. BARRY RALEIGH, Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory
ROGER REVELLE, Scripps Institution of Oceanography
BRIAN J. ROTHSCHILD, University of Maryland
JOHN H. STEELE, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
CARL I. WUNSCH, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
NANCY G. MAYNARD, Stay Director
KAROL McCLELLAND, Administrative Assistant
;v
OCR for page R5
Commission on Physical Sciences,
Mathematics, and Resources
HERBERT FRIEDMAN, National Research Council, Chairman
THOMAS BARROW, Standard Oil Company
ELKAN R. BLOUT, Harvard Medical School
WILLIAM BROWDER, Princeton University
BERNARD F. BURKE, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
GEORGE F. CARRIER, Harvard University
HERMAN CHERNOFF, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
CHARLES L. DRAKE, Dartmouth College
MILDRED S. DRESSELHAUS, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
JOSEPH L. FISHER, Office of the Governor, Commonwealth of Virginia
JAMES C. FLETCHER, University of Pittsburgh
WILLIAM A. FOWLER, California Institute of Technology
GERHART FRIEDLANDER, Brookhaven National Laboratory
EDWARD A. FRIEMAN, Science Applications, Inc.
EDWARD D. GOLDBERG, Scripps Institution of Oceanography
MARY L. GOOD, UOP, Inc.
THOMAS F. MALONE, Saint Joseph College
CHARLES J. MANKIN, Oklahoma Geological Survey
WALTER H. MUNK, University of California, San Diego
GEORGE E. PAKE, Xerox Research Center
ROBERT E. SIEVERS, University of Colorado
HOWARD E. SIMMONS, JR., E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc.
ISADORE M. SINGER, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
JOHN D. SPENGLER, Harvard School of Public Health
HASTEN S. YODER, JR., Carnegie Institution of Washington
RAPHAEL G. KASPER, Executive Director
LAWRENCE E. McCRAY, Associate Executive Director
v
OCR for page R6
Study Contributors
Steering Committee for the Petroleum in the Marine Environment Update
GORDON A. RILEY, Bedford Institute of Oceanography, Canada (Retired), Cochairman
WILLIAM M. SACKERS, University of South Flonda, Cochairman
RITA R. COLWELL, University of Maryland
JOHN W. FARRINGTON, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
C. BRUCE KOONS, Exxon Production Research Company
JOHN H. VANDERMEULEN, Bedford Institute of Oceanography, Canada
Workshop and Section Area Chairmen
Inputs, C. BRUCE KOONS
Methods, R1TA R. COLWELL and JOHN W. FARRINGTON
Microbial Studies, G. D. FLOODGATE
Fates, WILLIAM M. SACKETI and GORDON A. RILEY
Biological Processes, RICHARD F. LEE
Effects, JOHN H. VANOERMEULEN
Processes, CARL SINDERMAN
Food Chain, DONALD W. WESTLAKE
Ecosystems, Seeps and Spill Case Histories, Plankton, GORDON A. RILEY and
JOHN W. FARRINGTON
Benthos, DONALD F. BOESCH
Workshop Participants
Thomas Albert, The North Slope Borough
R. C. Allred, Conoco, Inc.
*Jack W. Anderson, Battelle Pacific
Northwest
Karl Banse, University of Washington
*Richard Bartha, Rutgers University
*Wayne Bell, Hamilton College
*William L. Berry, Shell Oil Company
Norman J. Blake, University of South Flonda
*Paul Boehm, Energy Resources Company
*Donald F. Boesch, Louisiana Universities
Manne Consortium
*James M. Brooks, Texas A&M University
R. G. B. Brown, Canadian Wildlife Service
*James N. Butler, Harvard University
John Calder, NOAA Office of Marine
Pollution
*Contributed background paper.
V1
OCR for page R7
G. P. Canevari, Exxon Research and
Engineering Company
Judith M. Capuzzo, Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution
D. W. Chamberlain, Atlantic Richfield
Company
*R. B. Clark, The University
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England
*Robert C. Clark, Jr., NOAA National Marine
Fisheries Service
Rita R. Colwell, University of Maryland
Bruce C. Coull, University of South Carolina
Elmer Danenberger, U.S. Geological Survey
*Robert A. Duce, University of Rhode Island
*F. Rainer Englehardt, Northern
Environmental Protection, Canada
John W. Farrington, Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution
G. D. Floodgate, University College of North
Wales
H. I. Fuller, Rookery Farm, United Kingdom
*Robert B. Gagosian, Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution
William D. Garrett, Naval Research
Laboratory
Richard A. Geyer, Texas A&bl University
*Edward-St Gilfillan, Bowdoin College
Jack R. Gould, American Petroleum Institute
Otto Grahl-Nielson, University of Bergen,
Norway
Judith Grassle, Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution
William O. Gray, Exxon Corporation
George Harvey, NOAA, Atlantic Marine
Laboratory
*Carl Hershner, Virginia Institute of Marine
Science
*Robert W. Howarth, The Ecosystems Center
Thomas Hruby, Massachusetts Audubon
Society
Walter Japp, Florida Department of Natural
Resources
James Kittredge, University of Southern
California
C. Bruce Koons, Exxon Production Research
Company
*Keith Kvenvolden, U.S. Geological Survey
Paul LaRock, Florida State University
*John Laseter, University of New Orleans
*Richard F. Lee, Skidaway Institute of
Oceanography
Olof Linden, IVL, Studsvik, Sweden
*Arlene Crosby Longwell, NOAA National
Marine Fisheries Service
Yossi Loya, Tel Aviv University, Israel
*Donald MacKay, University of Toronto
*Donald C. Malins, NOAA National Marine
Fisheries Service
James P. Marum, Mobil Oil Corporation
Leo T. McCarthy, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency
Richard Y. Morita, Oregon State University
*Jerry M. Neff, Battelle New England
*Bon Olla, NOAA National Manne Fisheries
Service
*Candace Oviatt, University of Rhode Island
*E. H. Owens, Woodward-Clyde Consultants
*Jan~es R. Payne, Science Applications, Inc.
David Peakall, Canadian Wildlife Service
*Errnan A. Pearson, University of California
at Berkeley (Retired)
William Pequegnat, College Station, Texas
*Jon A. Percy, Arctic Biological Station
Fred Piltz, U.S. Department of the Interior
*James G. Quinn, University of Rhode Island
*James P. Ray, Shell Oil Company
*Stanley Rice, NOAA National Marine
Fisheries Service
Gordon A. Riley, Bedford Institute of
Oceanography, Canada (Retired)
*Cal W. Ross, Mobil Oil Canada, Ltd.
William M. Sackett, University of South
Florida
Alain Saliot, Universite PieITe et Marie
Curie, France
*Y. S. Sasamura, International Maritime
Organization, England
Ted Sauer, Exxon Production Research
Company
*Contributed background paper.
vii
OCR for page R8
David G. Shaw, University of Alaska
Carl Sinderrnan, NOAA National Marine
Fisheries Service
June Lindstedt-Siva, Atlantic Richfield
Company
*Woollcott K. Smith, Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution
Norman B. Snow, Petro Canada
*Robert B. Spies, University of California
John H. Steele, Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution
*John J. Stegeman, Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution
Dale Straughan, University of Southern
California
*John M. Teal, Woods Hole Oceanographic
. .
Institution
Howard Teas, University of Miami
Sunniva Lonning Vader, University of
Tromso, Norway
*Chase Van Baalen, University of Texas
John H. Vandermeulen, Bedford Institute of
Oceanography, Canada
Edward S. Van Vleet, University of South
Florida
*Gabriel Vargo, University of South Florida
*Sandra Vargo, Florida Institute of
Oceanography
Richard C. Vetter, National Research
Council
Jan Vorhees, University of South Florida
*John D. Walker, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency
Neill Weaver, American Petroleum Institute
*Peter G. Wells, University of Toronto,
Canada
*D. W. S. Westlake, University of Alberta,
Canada
R. B. Wheeler, Exxon Production Research
Company
Mary Wolff, City University of New York
*Oliver Zafiriou, Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution
*Contributed background paper.
viii
OCR for page R9
Preface
The 1975 National Research Council (NRC) report, Petroleum in the Marine Environment, has proven to
be an extremely important document. It has been used as a primary source by individuals and groups
ranging from scientific investigators to concerned laymen. However, in mid- 1980 it became clear that an
update of the 1975 report was necessary. Much of the published material used as a basis for the earlier
report predates a workshop held in 1973 that provided most of the background for the 1975 report. Since
then, significant new data and information have been published. Thus, the U. S. Coast Guard requested
that the Ocean Sciences Board (OSB) (now the Board on Ocean Science and Policy) undertake a new
examination of this subject. The OSB appointed a steering committee consisting of cochairmen Gordon
A. Riley, Halifax, Nova Scotia, and William M. Sackett, University of South Florida, along with Rita R.
Colwell, University of Maryland; John W. Farrington, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution; C. Bruce
Koons, Exxon Production Research Company; and John H. Vandermeulen, Bedford Institute of
Oceanography. Later, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the Environmental
Protection Agency, the Bureau of Land Management (now the Minerals Management Service), Mobil,
Exxon, and the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation joined the U.S. Coast Guard in providing financial
support for the project.
The steering committee took the following major steps.
1. A public meeting was held on November 13, 1980, at which representatives from oil industry,
university, government, and environmental groups were invited to make presentations on important
topics for consideration by the steering committee.
2. In February 1981, 46 expert contributors were invited to prepare summary papers on all aspects of
petroleum in the oceans. These were reviewed and commented on by other experts selected by the
. .
steering committee.
3. An international workshop was held November 9-13, 1981, where contributors, reviewers, and
other invited scientists came together to discuss the main issues brought out from the previous two steps
and to make recommendations concerning future research needs. Approximately 90 of the participants
came from U.S. university, governmental, and industrial organizations. Another 22 came from Canada,
the United Kingdom, France, Gennany, Norway, Israel, and Sweden, providing a strong expert
background and a wide range of institutional and foreign governmental expertise to this new report.
4. In February 1982 the steering committee began the task of preparing the new report, based on the
input, ideas, and comments obtained by the previous steps. The writing process involved several review
steps. Drafts from these iterations were carefully reviewed at several meetings of the entire steering
committee. The review process was completed in November 1984.
IX
OCR for page R10
OCR for page R11
Contents
INTRODUCTION
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Overview, 3
General Advances: 1973-1983, 4
Findings and Recommendations, 6
Summary and Conclusions, 15
1. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM HYDROCARBON
SOURCES
Introduction, 17
Crude Oils, 17
Refined Products, 23
Oil Seeps and Ancient Sediments, 25
Biogenic Hydrocarbons, 26
Diagenetic Sources, 28
Combustion Sources and Comparison to Petroleum, 28
Other Sources, 29
Diagnosing Sources of Hydrocarbons, 29
Biogenic Sources, 31; Characteristics of Undegraded Petroleum, 31; Characteristics of
Petroleum Altered by Physical, Chemical, and Biological Processes, 32; Characteristics
of Combustion-Related Hydrocarbons, 36
References, 38
2. ENPUTS .......................................................
Introduction, 43
Natural Sources, 43
Natural Seeps, 45; Geological Implications of Seepage Rates, 48; Erosional Inputs of
Petroleum, 49
Offshore Production, 50
Operational (Produced Water) Discharges, 51; Minor Spills, 52; Major Spills, 55
Manne Transportation, 56
Operational Discharges, 58
Crude Oil, 58; Product Oil, 61
17
43
Xl
OCR for page R12
Dry-docking, 62
Marine Terminals Including Bunker Operations, 62
Bilge and Fuel Oil, 63
Machine Space Bilges, 63; Fuel Oil Sludge, 64; Oily Ballast From Fuel Oil Tanks, 64
Accidental Spillages, 65
Tanker Accidents, 65; Nontanker Accidents, 65
Atmosphere, 66
Coastal, Municipal, and Industrial Wastes and Runoff, 72
Municipal Wastewaters, 72; Nonrefinery Industrial Wastes, 74; Industrial Wastes
From Refineries, 75, Urban Runoff, 76; River Discharges, 78
Ocean Dumping, 78
Geographical Distribution of Inputs, 79
Summary and Recommendations, 81
References, 83
3. CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL METHODS 89
Introduction, 89
General Strategies of Study Design, 89; Sampling Procedures and Equipment, 91;
Statistical Design of Analytic Procedures in the Laboratory, 91; Presenting Results
From Complex Oil Pollution Studies, 92; Designing Ecological Experiments to Study
the Effects of Pollutants, 92; An Oil Spill Survey Design, 93; Summary, 93
Part A: Chemical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ . .
Introduction, 94
Sampling and Sample Preservation, 95
Sediments, 96; Sediment Traps, 96; Marine Organisms, 97; Seawater, 97;
Sampling for Low-Molecular-Weight Hydrocarbons, 98; Sample Preservation, 98
Spilled Oil Characterizations, 99
Sample Collection and Preservation, 99; Analytical Methods, 100
Measurements and Detailed Analysis of Environmental Samples, 102
General, 102; Extraction of Organic Matter (High Molecular Weight, Cal+)
Hydrocarbons, 104; Sample Cleanup and Fractionation, 107; Analytical Methods
for Cal + Hydrocarbons (Nonvolatiles), 110; Low-Molecular-Weight Hydrocarbons:
Analytical Methods, 122
Petroleum Hydrocarbon Intercalibration/Intercomparison Programs, 123
Remote Detection and Measurement of Oil Spills, 128
Monitoring for Petroleum Hydrocarbons, 131
Conclusions and Recommendations, 133
Conclusions, 133; Recommendations, 133
Pad ~ B'alo~ion1 Math
Introduction, 135
94
.._, `,^~..,~ .... . . . . . ... .. .... .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . 1 35
Physiological, Behavioral, Population, and Ecosystem Effects, 135; Problems of
Exposure, Type of Oil, Weathering, and Exposure Medium, 136
Methods for Assessing Toxicity of Petroleum to Marine Organisms, 137
Acute Lethal Toxicity Bioassay, 137; Chronic and Sublethal Effects Studies, 138;
Field Studies, 140; Selection of Test Organisms, 140; Preparation of Oil-Water
Solutions, 141
·-
X11
OCR for page R13
Bacteria, Yeasts, and Filamentous Fungi, 153
Methods for Estimating Microbial Numbers and Biomass, 153; Methods for
Estimating Metabolic Effects of Oil on Microorganisms, 154; Methods for
Obtaining Indirect and Direct Measurements of Oil Degradation, 155
Plankton, 156
Phytoplankton, 157; Zooplankton, 161
Accumulation and Modification of Petroleum by Macroorganisms, 164
Field Exposure Methods, 164; Laboratory Exposure Methods, 169
Communities. 180
Sampling Methods, 180; Analysis and Interpretation of Data, 183; Experimental
Approaches Beyond the Laboratory, 186
Fish, Seabirds, and Mammals, 187
Fish, 187; Seabirds, 189; Marine Mammals, 192
Cytogenic and Mutagenic Methods, 195
Chromosomal Aberrations, 195; Mutagenesis Assays, 201; Applicability to
Petroleum Studies, 202
Ecosystems, 203
Recommendations, 204
References, 206
4. FATES .......................................................
Introduction, 270
Physical and Chemical Fates, 271
Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Petroleum, 271; Processes, 273;
Summary and Recommendations, 289
Biological Fates, 290
Introduction, 290; Microbial Biodegradation, 291; Phytoplankton and Marine
Algae, 296; Invertebrates and Vertebrates, 297; Factors Influencing Petroleum
Biodegradation Rates, 303; Rates of Petroleum Biodegradation in the
Marine Environment, 306; Conclusions and Recommendations, 316
Amounts of Hydrocarbons in the Marine Environment, 316
Introduction, 316; Dissolved Petroleum Hydrocarbons, 317; Summary and
Recommendations, 335
References, 335
5. EFFECTS .....................................................
Introduction, 369
Toxicity, 372; Laboratory Versus Field Studies, 375; Factors Affecting Impact
of Oil, 375; Oil Metabolites and Photochemical Reaction Products, 378; Remedial
Measures, 379; Indirect Effects, 383
Effects on Biological Processes, 383
Developmental Problems, 383; Pathological Consequences, 392; Growth and
Metabolism, 394; Behavior, 398
Effects on the Marine Food Web, 401
Food Web Microbes, 401; Effects on Marine Plankton, 403; Macrophytes Intertidal
and Subtidal, 409; Benthic and Intertidal Invertebrates, 412; Fish, 417; Marine
Mammals, 424; Birds, 430
· --
Xlll
~7^
369
OCR for page R14
Effects on Communities and Ecosystems, 436
Wetlands, Marshes, and the Intertidal Zone, 437; Coastal and Offshore Waters and
Sediments, 440
Special Problem Areas, 449
Tropical Regions, 449; Polar Environments, 458
Effects of Natural Seeps, 468
Seep Studies, 468; Sublethal Effects and Adaptation, 471
Human Heals, 472
Toxicity of Hydrocarbons to Humans Acute Exposures, 472; Carcinogenic
Potential in Humans, 477
Summary, 482
Impact of Petroleum, 483; Impact on Processes and Organisms, 484; Impact on
Communities, 487; Polar and Tropical Regions, 488; Impact on Human
Health, 489; Petroleum and Other Chemical Contaminants, 489
Conclusion, 489
Research Recommendations, 490
References, 491
APPENDIX A Impact of Some Major Spills (Spill Case Histories'
Introduction, 549
An Inshore Spill: The Barge Florida, 550
An Open Bay Spill: The Arrow, 553
An Open Ocean Spill With Offshore Winds: The Argo Merchant, 557
A Near-Shore Spill With Onshore Wind: The Amoco Cadiz, 561
An Underwater Blowout: Ixtoc I, 567
An Onshore Tropical Spill: The Zoe Colocotroni, 572
Summary and Discussion, 573
References, 576
APPENDIX B Abbreviated Terms
APPENDIX C Public Meeting Participants, November 13, 1980
Washington, D.C. , ---------------
INDEX
549
583
xiv
586
587
OCR for page R15
List of Figures
1-la Chemical structure of petroleum hydrocarbons, 24
1-lb Chemical structure of petroleum hydrocarbons, 25
1-lc Nonhydrocarbon petroleum constituents: NSO compounds, 26
Boiling point range of fractions of crude petroleum, 27
1-3 Relative abundance of parent aromatic compound and alkyl substituents as influenced by
temperature of fo~ation, 29
1-4 PAH alkyl homolog distributions for sewage sludge and dredge spoils, 30
1-5 Glass capillary gas chromatograms of time series for fresh petroleum and petroleum
subjected to alteration by natural processes in sediments, 34
1-6 Gas chromatographic mass spectrometry selected ion searches for pentacyclic
triterpanes (hopanes) in Amoco Cadiz reference oil and November 1978 weathered
oil in sediments, 37
2-l International marine transportation routes for petroleum, 44
2-2 Location of reported marine seeps, 47
3-l Analytical options for analysis of petroleum compounds in sediment, tissue, particulate
matter, and water, 103
Representative petroleum hydrocarbon separation techniques, 108
Hierarchical scheme for analyses of petroleum hydrocarbon in environmental
samples, l l l
3-4 UV/F scan modes, 114
3-5 Representative synchronous fluorescence spectra of water samples collected near the
Ixtoc I blowout, 1 15
3-6 Solubilizer systems for exposing organisms to water-soluble fractions of crude oil, 148
3-7
3-8
Fuel oil dispersion and bioassay apparatus, 150
Plots of coefficients of variation for species populations in communities of
macrobenthos near West Falmouth, Massachusetts, 185
4-1 Schematic of physical, chemical, and biological processes, 271
4-2 Surface concentration of spill, 274
4-3 Photooxidation of benzota~pyrene, 281
4-4 Degradative pathways of petroleum hydrocarbons, 294
xv
OCR for page R16
4-5 Proposed pathways for the metabolism of napthalene by Oscillatoria sp.,
strain JCM, 297
4-6 Diagram of cytochrome P450-dependent metabolism of benzofa~pyrene, 308
5-1 Acute toxicity of some aromatic hydrocarbons for selected marine macroinvertebrates
and fish, 373
5-2 Effects of oiling on fine structure of surf smelt embryo retinas, 374
5-3 Schematic diagram of the offshore "mesocosm" study at Loch Ewe, Scotland, and
changes in zooplankton populations observed with the introduction of petroleum, 410
5-4 Toxicity of No. 2 fuel oil to life-cycle stages of selected marine shrimp and
polychaetes, 413
5-5 Subtidal invertebrates such as sea urchins and razor clams proved to be highly
vulnerable to the oil spilled from the Amoco Cadiz tanker, off the coast of France, 1978,
415
5-6 Oiled and unoiled harbor seal pups seen on Sable Island, Nova Scotia, Canada, in June
1979, 426
5-7 Schema of ecological succession of benthic infauna species after oiling of intertidal
sediments (a three-part figure), 441
5-8 Oil pollution at coral nature reserve of Eilat, Red Sea, 450
5-9 Effects of oil on a mangrove forest, 457
5-10 Radioautogram of metabolites formed from (1-~4C) naphthalene by ice-edge diatoms
isolated from the Bering Sea, 467
5-1 1 One potential route of oil contact with man is through eating of oiled seafood, as by this
North Brittany coastal resident digging for clams in sediments oiled by the Amoco Cadiz
tanker spill in 1978, 473
A-1 Faunal discrepancy indices at various stations in Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts,
following the Florida spill, 554
A-2 Mean wind vectors over Chedabucto Bay, February 3-12, 1970, 555
A-3 Geographical extent of shoreline contamination in Chedabucto Bay, February 1970,
immediately following Arrow breakup, 556
A-4 Erosion pattern of stranded Arrow Bunker C fuel oil on Chedabucto Bay shorelines,
1970-1976, 557
A-5 Summary of stranded Bunker C fuel oil reentry pattern into marine environment by oil
stranded on low energy gravel-cobble beach, 558
A-6 Horizontal dispersion of oil spilled from the Argo Merchant, December 17, 20, and 23,
1977, 559
A-7 Horizontal extent of oil movement from the Amoco Cadiz spill, 562
A-8 Pattern of the persistence of Amoco Cadiz oil in coastal waters and sediments of
Brittany, France, April 1978 to April 1981, 563
A-9 Location of the Ixtoc I blowout and the initial path of the slick movements, 568
A-10 Schematic diagram of the Ixtoc I blowout, 569
xvi
OCR for page R17
List of Tables
1-la
1-lb
1-lc
2-1
2-2
2-3
2-4
2-5
2-6
2-7
2-8
2-9
2-10
2-11
2-12
2-13
2-14
2-15
2-16
2-17
2-18
2-19
2-20
2-21
2-22
3-1
3-2
3-3
3-4
3-5
3-6
Physical characteristics and chemical properties of several crude oils, l9
Physical characteristics and chemical properties of two refined products, 21
Examples of individual polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations in
petroleum, 23
Petroleum transport at sea, 45
Petroleum resource estimates, 48
Maximum lifetimes (million years) of world oil deposits, 49
Offshore petroleum production, 1979, 51
Offshore produced water effluent limitations, 53
Oil to the marine environment from offshore produced water discharges, 54
Minor oil spills, Gulf of Mexico outer continental shelf, 1972-1978, 55
Oil to the marine environment from minor spills, 56
Major spills, Gulf of Mexico outer continental shelf, 1971-1978, 57
Oil to the marine environment from major spills, 58
Results of LOT operation efficiency tests, 60
Annual quantity of oil spills due to tanker accidents, 65
Summary of transportation losses (mta), 66
Particulate n-alkane concentrations in the marine atmosphere (ngIm3 STP), 69
Vapor phase n-alkanes in the marine atmosphere (ng/m3 STP), 70
Summary of atmospheric inputs of n-alkanes to the ocean (mta), 71
NRC estimates of hydrocarbons to world ocean, from municipal and industrial wastes
and runoff (mta), 73
Global discharge of hydrocarbons in municipal wastewaters, 75
Estimated global discharge of petroleum hydrocarbons into refinery wastewaters, 77
Selected urban runoff studies, 78
Per capita estimates of PHC contributions in urban runoff, 79
Input of petroleum hydrocarbons into the marine environment (mta), 82
Matrix of oil concentrations in sediments and correlations with benthic organism
biomass, 91
Summary of interlaboratory intercalibration exercises, 1976-1981, 125
Oil spill detection by remote sensing; sensors and spectral regions, 130
Concentrations of C~2-C24 e-paraffins and aromatic hydrocarbons in reference oils and
the 10% water-soluble fractions (WSFs) prepared from them, 144
Compositional comparison of reference oils on a basis of those hydrocarbons
measured, 145
Experimental field methods for exposing marine macroorganisms to petroleum
contaminants, 166
xvii
OCR for page R18
3-7
4-1
4-2
4-3
44
4-5
4-6
4-7
4-8
4-9
4-10
4-11
5-1
5-2
5-3
5-4
5-5
5-6
5-7
5-8
5-9
5-10
5-11
5-12
5-13
5-14
5-15
5-16
5-17
5-18
Laboratory methods for exposing marine macroorganisms to hydrocarbon
contaminants, 170
Henry's law constants for selected hydrocarbons, 273
Petroleum photooxidation summary, 282
Uptake and loss of petroleum hydrocarbons in bivalves under laboratory or microcosm
conditions, 300
Amounts of petroleum hydrocarbon in bivalves from contaminated areas, 301
Estimates under temperate conditions of hydrocarbon biodegradation rates, 307
Microsomal benzofa~pyrene metabolism in some marine animals, 310
Comparison of metabolizes of naphthalene in liver, muscle, and bile of starry flounder
(Platichthys stella ask, 312
Induction by hepatic ben%ofa~pyrene hydroxylase in marine fish by aromatic
hydrocarbons, 313
Tar densities on the world oceans, 324
Hydrocarbons in marine sediments, 327
Petroleum hydrocarbons in bottom-dwelling marine organisms, 332
Emphasis of oil-pollution-related study reports for the temperate and northern marine
environment between 1967 and 1977, 370
Acute lethal toxicity of some oil spill dispersants to marine organisms a selection of
current data, 382
Mutagenicity of petroleum and its components, 386
Summary of gill morphology in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) following 7 days of oil
treatment, comparing different modes of exposure, 393
Lethality (median lethal concentrations) of physically dispersed and water-soluble
fractions of various oils to marine zooplankton, 406
Experimental conditions of three field enclosure systems or mesocosms, 408
Effects of oil on eggs and embryos of marine fish, 419
Summary of effects of oil on marine fish larvae, 420
Relationship between amount of oil spilled in an incident and number of dead birds
found, 433
Summary of known long term biological effects of some major marine oil spills, 438
Summary of effects of oil spills on coral reefs, 451
Comparison of the impact of some oil spills on mangroves, 454
Summary of studies on the sublethal effects of petroleum hydrocarbons on polar marine
organisms, 459
Suggested inhalation exposure standards in humans for a variety of petroleum
hydrocarbons, 475
Benzofalpyrene content of selected petroleum products, 478
PAH levels in foodstuffs, 480
Estimated human exposure to benzofa~pyrene through respiratory and gastrointestinal
intake, 481
Effects of low concentrations (less than 1 ppm) of petroleum hydrocarbons on marine
organisms in laboratory and mesocosm studies, 485
Estimates of the distribution of oil spilled from the tankers Arrow, Zoe Colocotroni, and
Amoco Cadiz, 575
xviii
OCR for page R19
OIL IN TO
INPUTS, FATES, AND EFFECTS
SEA
OCR for page R20
