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Drinking
Water
ant
Health
Volume 5
SAFE DRINKING WATER COM~ITTEE
Board on loxicolo~ and
Environmental Health Hazards
~ . . ~ ~ .
ommls~on on Lue Sconces
National Research Council
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washln~on, D.C. 1983
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NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS, 2101 Constitution Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20418
NOTICE: We project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board
of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the Councils of the Na-
tional Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medi-
cine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special
competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures
approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of
Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was established by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916
to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of
furthering knowledge and of advising the federal government. The Council operates in accor-
dance with general policies determined by the Academy under the authority of its congression-
al charter of 1863, which establishes the Academy as a private, nonprofit, self-governing
membership corporation. The Council has become the principal operating agency of both the
National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in the conduct of
their services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities.
It is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. The National
Academy of Engineering and the Institute of Medicine were established in 1964 and 1970,
respectively, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences.
1 he study reported in this publication was conducted at the request of and funded by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency under Contract No. 68-01-3169.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 77-89284
International Standard Book Number 0-3~)9-03381-0
First Printing, November 1983
Second Printing, August 1986
Third Pnnting, October 1988
Founh Pnnting, January 1991
Printed in the United States of America
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List of
Participants
SAFE DRINKING WATER COMMITTEE
DANIEL B. MENZEL, Departments of Pharmacology and Medicine, Duke
University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, Chairman
EDWARD I. CALABRESE, Division of Public Health, University of Massa-
chusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts
GARY P. CARLSON, Department of Pharmacology, Purdue University,
West Lafayette, Indiana
CIPRIANO CUETO, D~amac Coloration, Rocknlle, Maryland
JOHN L. EMMERSON, Lilly Toxicology Borate, Eli Lilly & Company,
Greenfield, Indiana
MICHAEL A. GALLO, Department of Environmental and Community
Medicine, Rutgers Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey
KRISTIEN E. MORTELMANS, Microbial Genetics Department, Stanford
Research Institute International, Menlo Park, California
MALCOLM C. PIKE, Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, Uni-
versity of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
THOMAS SHELLENBERGER, Midwest Research institute, Kansas City,
Missouri
TlIOMAS SlIEPARD, Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington,
School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington
HANSPETER R. WITSCHI, Biology Division, Oak Ridge National Labora-
tory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee
...
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iV LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
National Research Council Staff
ROBERT J. GOLDEN, Project Director
FRANCES M. PETER, Editor
AGNES E. GASKIN, Secretary
Environmental Protection Agency Project Officer
KRISHAN KHANNA, EPA Office of Water Supply, Washington, D.C.
BOARD ON TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
HAZAR DS
RONALD W. ESTABROOK, Department of Biochemistry, University of
Texas Medical School, Dallas, Texas, Chairman'
PHILIP I. LANDRIGAN, National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health, Cincinnati, Ohio, Vice Chairman
EDWARD BRESNICK, Department of Pharmacology, University of Ver-
mont, Burlington, Vermont
VICTOR H. COHN, Department of Pharmacology, George Washington
University Medical Center, Washington, D.C.
A. MYRICK FREEMAN, Department of Economics, Bowdoin College,
Brunswick, Maine
DAVID G. HOEL, Biometry Branch, National Institute of Environmental
Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
MICHAEL W. LIEBERMAN, Department of Pathology, Washington Uni
versity, St. Louis, Missouri
RICHARD A. MERRILL, School of Law, University of Virginia, Charlottes-
ville, Virginia
VAUN A. NEWILL, Exxon Coloration, New York, New York
JOHN M. PETERS, Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, Uni-
~rersity of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
JOSEPH V. RODRICKS, Environ Coloration, Washington, D.C.
LIANE B. RUSSELL, Biology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
Oak Ridge, Tennessee
ClIARBES R. SCHUSTER, JR., Department of Psychiatry, University of
Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
Ex Officio Members
LESTER BRESBOW, School of Public Health, University of California, Los
Angeles, California
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List of Participants v
GARY P. CARLSON, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Pur-
due University, Lafayette, Indiana
NAMES F. CROW, Genetics Department, University of Wisconsin, Madi-
son, Wisconsin
BERNARD D. GOLDSTEIN, Department of Environmental and Commu-
nity Medicine, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey/
Rutgers Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey
ROGER O. MCCLELLAN, Lovelace Inhalation Toxicology Research Insti-
tute, Albuquerque, New Mexico
DANIEL B. MENZEL, Departments of Pharmacology and Medicine, Duke
University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina
SHELDON D. MURPHY, Department of Pharmacology, University of
Texas, Houston, Texas
NORTON NELSON, Institute of Environmental Medicine, New York Uni-
versity Medical Center, New York, New York
JAMES L. WHITTENBERGER, Southern Occupational Health Center, Uni-
versity of California, Irvine, California
National Research Council Staff
ROBERT G. TARDIFF, Executive Director
JACQUELINE PRINCE, Sta~Assistant
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-
Preface
The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 (PL 93-523) authorized the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to establish federal standards to
protect humans from harmful contaminants in drinking water and to es-
tablish a joint federal-state system for assuring compliance with these stan-
dards and for protecting underground sources of drinking water. One sec-
tion of the law [1412(e)] and its amendments (42 USC Subpart 300f et seq.,
1977) mandated that the National Academy of Sciences conduct studies on
the health effects associated with contaminants found in drinking water. It
stipulated that the study group should evaluate the available data for use
in developing primary drinking water regulations, identify areas of insuffi-
cient knowledge, and make recommendations for future research. Amend-
ments to the act in 1977 called for revisions of the Academy's studies to
reflect "new information which has become available since the most recent
previous report [and which] shall be reported to the Congress each two
years thereafter."
The first study in this series was published in 1977 under the title Drink-
ing Water and Health. That volume examines the health effects associated
with microbiological, radioactive, particulate, inorganic, and organic
chemical contaminants found in drinking water. It also gives numerical
risk assessments, which are estimates of the probability that cancer will
result from exposure to certain chemical contaminants in drinking water.
Volumes 2 and 3 of Drinking Water and Health were published in 1980.
Volume 2 compares the efficacy and practicability of chlorination and 11
alternative disinfection methods for inactivating microorganisms, identi-
·e
V11
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Viii PREFACE
ties the by-products likely to be formed by the use of each major method,
and evaluates the use of granular activated carbon for the reduction or
removal of organic and other contaminants from drinking water. Volume
3 reviews 12 epidemiological studies concerning health effects associated
with drinking water containing trihalomethanes. It also summarizes the
current state of knowledge on the relationship between cardiovascular dis-
ease and water hardness. It adds to the 1977 publication's information on
estimation of risk to human health by extrapolating carcinogenesis data
from laboratory animals to humans and also evaluates six models for esti-
mating the carcinogenic risk at low doses. Furthermore, it examines the
acute and chronic health effects associated with the products of water dis-
infection and other selected contaminants. The volume also develops sug-
gested no-adverse-response levels (SNARL's) for both acute and chronic
exposure to the drinking water contaminants reviewed by the committee.
One chapter reviews the contribution of selected inorganic elements in
drinking water to the optimal nutrition of humans.
Volume 4 of Drinking Water and Health was published in 1982. This
volume identifies chemical and biological contaminants associated with
drinking water distribution systems and the health implications of defi-
ciencies in those systems. It also contains an evaluation of information on
the toxicity of selected inorganic and organic contaminants and provides
SNARL's when appropriate. Some of the compounds were reviewed for the
first time in this report; others had been reviewed in earlier volumes of this
series. For the latter compounds, discussions were limited mainly to infor-
mation that had become available after the earlier reports had been pub-
lished, although the committee occasionally cited older references that
were not previously assessed.
The study reported in this volume continues the assessment and evalua-
tion procedures established in the earlier volumes. Twenty-one compounds
are renewed in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 contains an evaluation of epidemio-
logical data on exposure to arsenic and asbestos in drinking water.
On behalf of the members of this committee, I would like to express our
thanks and gratitude to Dr. Robert Golden, who served as the Project Offi-
cer for this study. Without his enthusiastic efforts and logistical support
this endeavor would not have been possible. We also thank Ms. Frances
Peter, who served as Editor of this report, and Ms. Virginia White, Ms.
Edna Paulson, and Ms. Edna Millard, who assisted in an extensive search
of the scientific literature and in reference verification. In addition, we ac-
knowledge the assistance of members of the EPA staff, especially Drs.
Krishan Khanna and Joseph Cotruvo. The committee is grateful to Ms.
Agnes Gaskin for organizing meetings, preparing the manuscripts, and
providing general secretarial support.
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Preface ix
Special thanks are in order for Drs. David Hoel, Joseph Haseman, and
Nathanial White from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sci-
ences, who expended great effort in providing the committee with the car-
cinogenic risk estimates.
Finally, I thank the members of the committee, all of whom took time
away from busy schedules to donate their expertise to this project. Their
contributions will continue the level of excellence established by previous
volumes in this series. It was a pleasure to have the opportunity to work
with them.
DANIEL B . MENZEL, Chairman
Safe Drinking Water Committee
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Contents
I INTRODUCTION
II TOXICITY OF SELECTED CONTAMINANTS IN DRINKING 9
WATER
Aldicarb, 10
Carbofuran, 12
Carbon tetrachloride, 15
Chlorobenzene, 18
o-Dichlorobenzene, 22
p-Dichlorobenzene, 2S
1,2-Dichloroethane, 28
1,1-Dichloroethylene, 32
1,2-Dichloroethylene Ices and trans), 40
Dichloromethane, 43
Dinoseb, 46
Hexachlorobenzene, 49
Methomyl, 57
Picloram, 60
Rotenone, 63
Tetrachloroethylene, 70
1,1,1-Trichloroethane, 74
Trichloroethylene, 79
Xl
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Xii CONTENTS
Vinyl chloride (monochloroethylene), 85
Uranium, 90
III EPIDEMIOLOGY OF THE ADVERSE HEALTH EFFECTS 118
OF ARSENIC AND ASBESTOS IN DRINKING WATER
Arsenic, 118
Asbestos, 123
APPENDIX: 1977 AMENDMENT TO THE SAFE DRINKING 149
WATER ACT
INDEX
151
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DRINKING
WATER
AND
HEALTH
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