|
Items in cart [0] |
Questions? Call 888-624-8373 |
| Copyright © 2009. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Terms of Use and Privacy Statement |
Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole.
Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter.
Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.
Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines.
OCR for page 130
~ Dietary Fiber
Recently, attention has been directed toward the physiological
significance of dietary fiber, which generally includes indigestible
carbohydrates and carbohydrate-like components of food such as cellulose,
lignin, hemicelluloses, pentosans, gums, and pectins. The principal
characteristic of these indigestible substances is their provision of
bulk in the diet. The major categories of foods that provide dietary
fiber are vegetables, fruits, and whole grain cereals.
Because of the complex composition of dietary fiber, the physio-
logical functions and metabolic activity of its individual components
have not been adequately studied. Most earlier analyses focused on the
intake of so-called crude fiber. Therefore, they generally under-
estimated the fiber content since crude fiber only determines cellulose
and lignin. Consequently, early reports provided incomplete data on the
amount and type of fiber consumed.
During the past few decades, the consumption of dietary fiber has
decreased in many parts of the Western world (National Academy of
Sciences, 1980~. On the basis of observations concerning the rela-
tionship of diet and the incidence of disease, Burkitt and Trowell
(1975) hypothesized that many chronic diseases including cancer are
associated with a low intake of dietary fiber.
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
The epidemiological data on fiber are related primarily to its
possible role in protection against large bowel cancer. Several
different mechanisms have been proposed for this protective effect:
Fiber can dilute carcinogens present in the large bowel; it can de-
crease transit time, thereby decreasing contact time between carcinogen
and tissue; it can affect the production of putative carcinogens or
procarcinogens in the stool such as the bile acids; or, by influencing
the composition and metabolic activity of the fecal flora, it can alter
the spectrum of fecal bile acids and their derivatives that are present
in the stool. Most data on the fiber content of foods are incomplete,
because they pertain only to crude fiber. Since any effect associated
with dietary fiber may be restricted to selected components, epidemio-
logical studies of dietary fiber will have limited value until detailed
information on each of its constituents becomes available.
Attempts to correlate the fiber content of diets with colorectal
cancer risk have yielded mixed results. Malhotra (1977) suggested that
the differences in colon cancer incidence among northern and southern
130
8-1
OCR for page 131
Dietary Fiber 131
populations in India might be explained by the high levels of roughage,
cellulose, and vegetable fiber in the northern Indian diet and the very
low levels in the southern Indian diet. There was a virtual absence of
the disease in the Punjabis from the north. He also found that vegeta-
ble fibers were abundant in the stools of Indians from the north, but
completely absent in samples obtained from inhabitants of the southern
regions. MacLennan et al. (1978) observed similar differences after
comparing the diets of adult men from Copenhagen, Denmark (high risk
group for colon cancer) and from Kuopio, Finland (low risk group). The
Danes consumed less fiber and their stools weighed less than those of the
Finns. These findings lend support to the hypothesis that dietary fiber
plays a protective role in carcinogenesis. gingham et al. (1979) calcu-
lated the average fiber intake by populations in different regions of
Great Britain. They found no significant correlation between total fiber
intake and corresponding mortality rates for colon and rectal cancers.
However, the mean intakes of the pentosan fraction of total dietary fiber
and of vegetables other than potatoes were inversely correlated with
mortality from colon cancer. This finding suggested the importance of
examining the specific components of fiber rather than crude or total
fiber in studies of large bowel cancer.
Other correlation analyses have not supported the hypothesis that
fiber intake is inversely associated with the risk of colon cancer. Liu
et al. (1979) examined mortality from colon cancer in 20 industralized
countries between 1967 and 1973 and compared the rates to per capita food
intake for these same areas from 1954 to 1965. Although fiber intake was
inversely correlated with colon cancer mortality, this relationship was
no longer significant in a partial correlation analysis controlling for
cholesterol intake. The authors concluded that cholesterol, not fiber,
was an important risk factor for colon cancer. In other studies, Drasar
and Irving (1973) failed to find a correlation between colon cancer in-
cidence in 37 countries and per capita intake of various fiber-containing
foods, and Lyon and Sorenson (1978) found little difference in fiber
intake between the population of Utah (low risk) and the population of
the United States as a whole.
In a number of case-control studies, investigators have attempted to
examine the relationship between dietary fiber and risk of large bowel
cancer, again with inconsistent results. Modan et al. (1975) assessed
the frequency with which certain food items were consumed by colon and
rectal cancer cases and both hospital and neighborhood controls. They
a; ~h-fi her fnnd.c hv colon cancer cases was
E controls, but there was
~ .,
no such difference between rectal cancer cases and controls. Using a
similar approach, Bjelke (1978) observed that the consumption of dietary
fiber by colorectal cancer cases was lower than that of controls in
parallel studies conducted in Minnesota and Norway.
found that the consumption of .._~. ~
significantly lower than that of both groups 0
Dales et al. (1978) studied cases of colorectal cancer in U.S.
blacks. Controls were selected from two hospitals and a multiphasic
8 - 2
OCR for page 132
132 DIET, NUTRITION, AND CANCER
health check-up clinic. By assessing the frequency of consumption of
selected food items, they found that the cases consumed fewer fiber-
containing foods than did the controls, and that there was a consistent
dose-response relationship. Significantly more cases than controls
reported the consumption of a diet that was high in saturated fat but
low in fiber.
In a case-control study of diet and colorectal cancer in Canada, Jain
et al. (1980) attempted to compute consumption of dietary fiber based on
the actual fiber content of food rather than on a simple grouping of food
items as other investigators had done. They found an elevated risk asso-
ciated with increased consumption of calories, total fat, total protein,
saturated fat, oleic acid, and cholesterol, but no association with the
consumption of crude fiber, vitamin C, or linoleic acid. Unfortunately,
data on the specific components of fiber were not available for their
analysis.
A direct association between fiber consumption and large bowel
cancer was reported by Martinez et al. (1979), who conducted a case-
control study in Puerto Rico. Based on frequency-of-consumption dietary
histories, they found higher consumption of fiber and total residue in
cases than in controls. They provided no explanation for this unusual
finding, which, however, is consistent with the observation of Hill et
al. (1979) that the highest socioeconomic group studied in Hong Kong had
the highest incidence of colon cancer and a high intake of fiber and
calories, whereas the middle and lowest socioeconomic groups had corre-
spondingly lower incidence rates and intakes.
Glober et al. (1974, 1977), compared bowel transit-times in men
from three different populations: Japanese in Japan (low risk for colon
cancer), Japanese in Hawaii (high risk for colon cancer), and Caucasians
in Hawaii (also high risk for colon cancer). They found that bowel
transit-times were similar in both Japanese populations, and were shorter
than in the Caucasians. Mean stool weight, however, was similar in the
two high-risk populations and was notably less than that for the Japanese
in Japan. Thus, their data did not support the hypothesis that dietary
fiber protects against colon cancer by decreasing transit time in the
bowel, thereby decreasing the contact time between carcinogens and
tissues.
Dietary fiber can also affect the amount of bile acids excreted into
the lumen of the intestine. However, since dietary fat influences bile
acid excretion as well, the relative effects of both of these dietary
components need further study. Studies of the composition of bile acids
in the feces of humans are reviewed in Chapter 5.
EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE
A variety of chemical carcinogens cause colon cancer in rats. Among
these are 1,2-dimethylhydrazine (DMH), azoxymethane (AOM), methyl-
azoxymethanol (HAM) acetate, 3,2'-dimethyl-4-aminobiphenyl (DAB), and
8 - 3
OCR for page 133
Dietary Fiber 133
nitrosomethylurea (NMU). Colon cancer can be induced in these labora-
tory animals by parenteral administration of DMH, AOM, HAM, and DAB; by
feeding DMH; and by intrarectal instillation of NMU. Bran protects rats
against DMH-induced colon cancer, regardless of whether the carcinogen is
administered orally or subcutaneously (Barbolt and Abraham, 1978; Chen et
al., 1978; Wilson et al., 1977~. However, it has no effect on the
incidence or number of tumors in the duodenum or cecum. Cellulose has
been found to protect rats against DMH-induced tumors (Freeman et al.,
1978, 1980), but pectin does not (Freeman et al., 1980~. Cellulose does
not appear to protect against tumors induced by AOM or NMU (Ward et al.,
1973; Watanabe et al., 1978~.
Fleiszer _ al. (1980) have studied the effects of different levels
of fiber on DMH-induced colon cancer in rats. Four diets were used:
very high fiber (28%) supplied as bran cereal; high fiber (15%) supplied
as a special rat chow; low fiber (5%) supplied as standard rat chow; and
a fiber-free, semipurified diet. Fewer cancers occurred in the rats fed
the very high fiber and high fiber diets, than in those given the low
fiber diet. Because the basal diet for the fiber-free group was con-
siderably different, the response of these animals cannot be reasonably
compared with those of the other animals.
Although components of dietary fiber generally appear to exert a
protective effect against DMH-induced carcinogenesis, Glauert et al.
(1981) recently reported that dietary agar (a fiber-rich component of
the diet) enhanced DMH-induced colon cancer in mice.
The effects of dietary fiber have been compared in rats treated with
AOM or NMU (Watanabe _ al., 1979~. The substances tested were alfalfa,
pectin, and wheat bran fed as 15% of a diet that also contained 5% cell-
ulose. When the carcinogen was given parenterally, pectin exerted a
protective effect but alfalfa and bran were ineffective. When the car-
cinogen was given by intrarectal instillation, alfalfa enhanced carcin-
ogenesis, but pectin and bran were not protective.
Alfalfa has a relatively strong ability to bind bile acids (Story and
Kritchevsky, 1976~. Cassidy et al. (1981) demonstrated that substances
with this binding capacity disrupt the topography of the colonic mucosa.
The denuded epithelium would then be susceptible to the action of a
locally administered carcinogen.
Although some data suggest that some types of fiber (e.g., bran and
cellulose) can protect rats from the action of certain chemical carcino-
gens, the collated data from different experiments are difficult to com-
pare or interpret, primarily because of the lack of uniform experimental
protocols. The strains of rats, their diets, age, the carcinogens used,
and routes of administration all differ. The animal model is useful to
study the effects of fiber on carcinogenesis in the large bowel, but the
lack of standardization must be borne in mind when assessing or comparing
data.
8 - 4
OCR for page 134
134 DIET, NUTRITION, AND CANCER
SUMMARY
Epidemiological Evidence
Both correlation and case-control studies have yielded results that
either support or contradict the hypothesis that dietary fiber protects
against colorectal cancer. In both types of studies, most analyses have
been based on total fiber consumption estimated by grouping foods (such
as fruits, vegetables, and cereals) according to their fiber content.
However, in the only case-control study and the only correlation study in
which the total fiber consumption was quantified rather than estimated
from the fiber-rich foods in the diet, no association was found between
total fiber consumption and the risk of colon cancer. Thus, the epidem-
iological evidence suggesting an inverse relationship between total fiber
intake and the occurrence of colon cancer is not yet compelling.
In the only study in which the effects of individual components of
fiber were assessed, there was an inverse correlation between the inci-
dence of colon cancer and the consumption of the pentosan fraction of
fiber (found in whole wheat products). Thus, it seems likely that
further epidemiological study of fiber will be productive only if the
relationship of cancer to specific components of fiber can be analyzed.
Experimental Evidence
A few laboratory studies have also shown that some types of high
fiber ingredients (e.g., cellulose and bran) depress the tumorigenicity
of certain chemical carcinogens. However, the data are inconsistent--
especially with respect to the type of fiber or specific chemical car-
cinogen. Moreover, they are difficult to equate with the results of
epidemiological studies because most laboratory experiments have examined
specific fibers or their individual components, whereas most epidemio-
logical studies have focused on fiber-containing foods whose exact compo-
sition has not been determined. Further information is needed on the
basic chemistry and biological effects of fiber and its components to
pursue experimental studies that will produce meaningful results.
CONCLUSION
The committee found no conclusive evidence to indicate that dietary
fiber (such as that present in fruits, vegetables, grains, and cereals)
exerts a protective effect against colorectal cancer in humans. Both
epidemiological and laboratory reports suggest that if there is such an
effect, specific components of fiber, rather than total dietary fiber,
are more likely to be responsible.
8 - 5
OCR for page 135
Dietary Fiber 135
REFERENCES
Barbolt, T. A., and R. Abraham. 1978. The effect of bran on dimethyl-
hydrazine-induced colon carcinogenesis in the rat. Proc. Soc. Exp.
Biol. Med. 157:656-659.
gingham, S., D. R. R. Williams, T. J. Cole, and W. P. T. James. 1979.
Dietary fibre and regional large-bowel cancer mortality in Britain.
Br. J. Cancer 40:456-463.
Bjelke, E. 1978. Dietary factors and the epidemiology of cancer of the
stomach and large bowel. Aktuel. Ernaehrungsmed. Klin. Prax.
Suppl. 2:10-17.
Burkitt, D. P., and H. C. Trowell. 1975. Refined Carbohydrate Foods
and Disease. Some Implications of Dietary Fibre. Academic Press,
London, New York, and San Francisco. 356 pp.
Cassidy, M. M., F. G. Lightfoot, L. E. Grau, J. A. Story, D. Kritchevsky,
and G. V. Vahouny. 1981. Effect of chronic intake of dietary fibers
on the ultrastructural topography of rat jejunum and colon: A
scanning electron microscopy study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 34:218-228.
Chen, W.-F., A. S. Patchefsky, and H. S. Goldsmith. 1978. Colonic
protection from dimethylhydrazine by a high fiber diet. Surg.
Gynecol. Obstet. 147:503-506.
Dales, L. G., G. D. Friedman, H. K. Ury, S. Grossman, and S. R.
Williams. 1978. A case-control study of relationships of diet and
other traits to colorectal cancer in American blacks. Am. J.
Epidemiol. 109:132-144.
Drasar, B. S., and D. Irving. 1973. Environmental factors and cancer
of the colon and breast. Br. J. Cancer 27:167-172.
Fleiszer, D. M., D. Murray, G. K. Richards, and R. A. Brown. 1980.
Effects of diet on chemically induced bowel cancer. Can. J. Surg.
23:67-73.
Freeman, H. J., G. A. Spiller, and Y. S. Kim. 1978. A double-blind
study on the effect of purified cellulose dietary fiber on 1,2-
dimethylhydrazine-induced rat colonic neoplasia. Cancer Res.
38:2912-2917.
Freeman, H. J., G. A. Spiller, and Y. S. Kim. 1980. A double-blind
study on the effects of differing purified cellulose and pectin
8 - 6
OCR for page 136
136 DIET, NUTRITION, AND CANCER
fiber diets on 1,2-dimethylhydrazine-induced rat colonic neoplasia.
Cancer Res. 40:2661-2665.
Glauert, H. P., M. R. Bennink, and C. H. Sander. 1981. Enhancement
of 1,2-dimethylhydrazine-induced colon carcinogenesis in mice by
dietary agar. Food Cosmet. Toxicol. 19:281-286.
Glober, G. A., K. L. Klein, J. O. Moore, and B. C. Abba. 1974. Bowel
transit-times in two populations experiencing similar colon-cancer
risks. Lancet 2:80-81.
Glober, G. A., A. Nomura, S. Kamiyama, A. Shimada, and B. C. Abba.
1977. Bowel transit-time and stool weight in populations with
different colon-cancer risks. Lancet 2:110-111.
Hill, M., R. MacLennan, and K. Newcombe. 1979. Letter to the Editor:
Diet and large-bowel cancer in three socioeconomic groups in Hong
Kong. Lancet 1:436.
Jain, M., G. M. Cook, F. G. Davis, M. G. Grace, G. R. Howe, and A. B.
Miller. 1980. A case-control study of diet and colo-rectal
cancer. Int. J. Cancer 26:757-768.
Liu, K., J. Stamler, D. Moss, D. Garside, V. Persky, and I. Soltero.
1979. Dietary cholesterol, fat, and fibre, and colon-cancer
mortality. Lancet 2:782-785.
Lyon, J. L., and A. W. Sorenson. 1978. Colon cancer in a low-risk
population. AP1. J. Clin. Nutr. 31:S227-S230.
MacLennan, R., O. M. Jensen, J. Mosbech, and 11. Vuori. 1978. Diet,
transit time, stool weight, and colon cancer in two Scandinavian
populations. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 31:S239-S242.
Malhotra, S. L. 1977. Dietary factors in a study of cancer colon
from cancer registry, with special reference to the role of saliva,
milk and fermented milk products and vegetable fibre. Med.
Hypotheses 3:122-126.
Martinez, I., R. Torres, Z. Fr~as, J. R. Colon, and M. Fernandez.
1979. Factors associated with adenocarcinomas of the large bowel
in Puerto Rico. Pp. 45-52 in J. M. Birch, ed. Advances in Medical
Oncology, Research and Education. Volume 3: Epidemiology.
Pergamon Press, Oxford, New York, Toronto, Sydney, Paris, and
Frankfurt.
Modan, B., V. Barell, F. Lubin, M. Modan, R. A. Greenberg, and
S. Graham. 1975. Low-fiber intake as an etiologic factor in
cancer of the colon. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 55:15-18.
8 - 7
OCR for page 137
Dietary Fiber 137
National Academy of Sciences. 1980. Recommended Dietary Allowances,
9th Edition. Committee on Dietary Allowances, Food and Nutrition
Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. 187 pp.
Story, J. A., and D. Kritchevsky. 1976. Comparison of the binding
of various bile acids and bile salts in vitro by several types of
fiber. J. Nutr. 106:1292-1294.
Ward, J. M., R. S. Yamamoto, and J. H. Weisburger. 1973. Cellulose
dietary bulk and azoxymethane-induced intestinal cancer. J. Natl.
Cancer Inst. 51:713-715.
Watanabe, K., B. S. Reddy, C. Q. Wang, and J. H. Weisburger. 1978.
Effect of dietary undegraded carrageenin on colon carcinogenesis in
F344 rats treated with azoxymethane or methylnitrosourea. Cancer
Res. 38:4427-4430.
Watanabe, K., B. S. Reddy, J. H. Weisburger, and D. Kritchevsky. 1979.
Effect of dietary alfalfa, pectin, and wheat bran on azoxymethane-
or methylnitrosourea-induced colon carcinogenesis in F344 rats. J.
Natl. Cancer Inst. 63:141-145.
Wilson, R. B., D. P. Hutcheson, and L. Wideman. 1977. Dimethyl-
hydrazine-induced colon tumors in rats fed diets containing beef
fat or corn oil with and without wheat bran. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.
30:176-181.
8 - 8
Representative terms from entire chapter:
colon cancer
