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CHAPTER SEVEN
NURSING RESEARCH PERSONNEL
Nursing research addresses critical issues of nursing
practice and health care. It seeks to understand problems of
living with acute and chronic illness, factors associated with
health promotion and disease prevention, and the impact of
nursing systems. Research on acute and chronic illness fo-
cuses on patient and family responses to illness and disabil-
ity, He biological and behavioral factors that contribute to
these conditions, and ways to improve or remedy them.
Health promotion and disease prevention research focuses
on maintaining and improving general health status among
diverse populations through effective nursing and health
care practice interventions. It concerns such issues as preg-
nancy, health behavior, adolescent heals habits, dieting
practices, smoking and heals behavior, as well as early
detection and treaUnent of particular diseases or conditions.
Nursing systems research focuses on patient outcomes, new
approaches to quality nursing services to improve patient
care, studies of innovative nursing care delivery models,
and issues of clinical decision-making.
In recognition of the important role nursing research
plays and the potential of its future contributions to the
health and welfare of the American people, the National
Center for Nursing Research, established in 1986, became
the 17~ institute (National Institute of Nursing Research,
NINR) the National Institutes of Health (NIH) on June 17,
1993. The primary mission of NINR is to provide a strong
scientific base for nursing and heals care practice. Medi-
cal research focuses on finding better ways to diagnose and
treat illness, and nursing research complements it by focus-
ing on people's responses to illness and treatment. For ex-
ample, a medical researcher might study how to diagnose
the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) earlier or which
drugs and what doses are best to combat HIV infection. A
nurse researcher might study the symptoms associated win
HIV, such as muscle wasting and pain. Nursing research
73
aims to develop interventions to maintain or improve the
patient' s quality of life and functional status.
With He enactment of the Health Research and Heals
Services Amendments of 1976 (P.L. 94-278), the NRSA
training authority was extended to include the research train-
ing programs administered by the Division of Nursing of
the Health Research and Services Administration. As a re-
sult, the National Research Council in 1977 described
changes taking place in the composition of Be nursing re-
search labor force and training needs and specified how
NRSA funds might contribute to He production of scien-
tists in this area. Nursing research as the 1977 study com-
mittee noted in its report (NRC, 1977) complements bio-
medical and behavioral research by focusing on health
outcomes and improved patient care.
Since the inclusion of nursing research in the NRSA pro-
gram in 1976, nursing research and nursing research train-
ing have undergone many organizational changes within the
federal government, ultimately resulting in the appearance
last year in the National Institute of Nursing Research
HAIR). NINR has a strong commitment to support re-
search training. Its National Research Service Award
MESA) program has primarily funded predoctoral fellows
and trainees. However, there is a great need to increase the
support for nurse researchers at the postdoctoral level and
to shift toward a balance in the distribution of funding for
predoctoral and postdoctoral fellows and trainees.
ADVANCES IN NURSING RESEARCH
Nursing research may be considered to be organized into
three general categories: acute and chronic illness, heals
promotion and disease prevention, and systems of care.
Advances in each of these three overall areas of nursing
research are summarized below.
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MEETING THE NATIONS NEEDS FOR BIOMEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENTISTS
Acute and Chronic Illness
Research topics on nursing care of acute illness range
from sleep-wake patterns of preterm infants in the neonatal
intensive care unit to the biobehavioral factors affecting re-
covery after a myocardial infarction. Nursing studies of
chronic illness address pain assessment and management,
stress, orientation and cognitive dysfunction, and adapta-
tion to decreased functional status (Hester, et al., 1990~.
They also address symptom management for diverse dis-
eases and conditions such as fatigue, dyspnea, nausea and
vomiting, anxiety, cognitive impairment, and sleep distur-
bances, as well as symptoms of specific diseases (McCorkle
et al., 1994).
There is a renewed focus in nursing research on the ap-
plication of state-of-the-art biological and behavioral theory
and measurement to the clinical problems patients experi-
ence win illness and medical treatment. For example, one
such study is measuring the effects of self-management bio-
feedback therapy on the frequency of complex ventricular
ectopia, events of sudden cardiac arrest, survival rate, and
enhanced heart rate variability in subjects after an episode
of sudden cardiac arrest (Cowan et al., 1991~. Other studies
are investigating factors related to breast cancer, colorectal
cancer, and depression after stroke. Investigators are com-
bining data across studies in the areas of depression and
biological immune responses (Johnston et al., in press; Tax
et al., in press).
Nursing studies also examine the effectiveness of nurs-
ing procedures, such as open versus closed endotracheal
suctioning. They compare different modes of oxygen de-
livery to patients with chronic lung disease and develop
accurate tests for confirming correct nasogastric tube place-
ment at the bedside (Rudy et al., 1991~. Other procedures
being investigated include feeding and handling of infants
in the neonatal intensive care units, wound healing of decubiti,
and behavioral strategies to maintain the functional indepen-
dence of cognitively impaired nursing home residents.
Nursing research holds great promise for increasing the
effectiveness of patient care and improving the quality of
life for patients and their families. New discoveries en-
hance the potential for new and effective approaches to
nursing.
Health Promotion and Disease Prevention
Nursing studies of health promotion and disease preven-
tion examine ways in which behavioral change can be ef-
fected to improve quality of life and encourage avoidance
of heals risks across the life span. Descriptive and correla-
tional studies have predominated in the past, exploring such
variables as mental heals in postpartum mothers,
neurometric measures of premenstrual syndrome, weight
74
management, fatigue, exercise regimens, and perimeno-
pausal phenomena (Shaver et al., 1992~. Studies of inter-
vention programs such as educational nrn~rnm.~ for .~.hnol-
age children are also conducted.
~, . . ~ . ~. .
r D
Most health problems are complex and are linked to be-
havior and lifestyle. They require multidisciplinary ap-
proaches that combine knowledge from the biological, en-
vironmental, and behavioral sciences. Nurse investigators
are seeking ways to tap into the extraordinary advances in
the basic biological and behavioral sciences to better under-
stand how healthy behaviors are established and maintained.
For example, nurse researchers investigate positive and
negative health behaviors in childhood and early adoles-
cence and Heir linkage to individual, family, social, bio-
logical, and environmental factors. They work with col-
leagues in the biological sciences to test interventions such
as exercise and counseling.
Women's health is another area of expanding interest for
nursing research, including childbearing, nutrition, exercise,
normal developmental processes, and stress and adaptation
to life transitions (Woods et al., 1993~. The large studies on
women's health issues initiated by NIH will provide addi-
tional opportunities for nurse researchers to study the bio-
logical, behavioral, and social factors that contribute to
health and disease and to test interventions that will pro-
mote health and prevent disease.
Systems of Care
Nurse researchers are evaluating the clinical context in
which heals care is provided, the process of nursing care,
and organizational factors that affect patient outcomes and
quality of care delivery. For example, the cardiovascular
effects of noise and light have been studied in neonatal in-
tensive care units and coronary care units. Other studies
have documented He cost effectiveness of nurse-coordinated
care from the hospital into the home for high-risk popula-
tions such as very-low-birth-weight infants, women with high
risk pregnancies, and frail older people (Brooten et al., 1986~.
A unique and challenging area of research is He explora-
tion of bioethical issues in health care delivery. There is a
tremendous need for empirical studies of treatment deci-
sions, especially as they relate to advanced medical tech-
nologies and access to innovative therapies.
A major challenge for nurse investigators is the identifi-
cation and measurement of interventions and clinical end-
points of nursing care that are cost effective. New modes of
health care delivery and financing will continue to exert
pressures to develop measures of care Hat can monitor ap-
propriateness and quality of care. To answer research ques-
tions related to these issues, nurse investigators often col-
laborate win researchers in health services research and
other disciplines.
OCR for page 75
NURSING RESEARCH PERSONNEL
Nursing studies utilize a variety of methods and mea-
sures, integrating knowledge across disciplines in an effort
to understand human behavior, health, and disease in the
context of the individual, the family, and the social and
cultural environment. These complex clinical questions re-
quire the talents and perspectives of many disciplines as
well as the expertise of nurses in clinical practice, who ask
provocative questions about the patient care they are pro
. .
V1( lNg.
ASSESSMENT OF THE CURRENT MARKET
FOR NURSING RESEARCH PERSONNEL
Approximately 12,000 nurses with doctoral training in
the sciences were employed in the U.S. work force in 1992,
up from 4,108 in 1980 (Bureau of Health Professionals,
1991~. Even with this increase in numbers of doctorally
prepared nurses, He gap between supply and demand re-
mains large. Nurses often begin their research careers at
midlife, with an expansion of interests grounded in clinical
experience. Clinical research is a strength of nursing re-
search, with questions for basic biomedical and behavioral
research most often emanating from clinical questions be-
ing asked. Research opportunities are expanding for nurses,
both within academia and in hospitals and other clinical
settings (Moses, 1993~. The number of nurse researchers in
clinical settings is growing. In 1984, 9.3 percent of
doctorally prepared nurses worked in hospitals (Moses,
1986), whereas by 1988 it was estimated that 14 percent
were working in hospitals (80 percent employed as faculty
and 6 percent in other areas). In 1992, 18.5 percent of
doctorally prepared nurses were employed in hospital set-
tings (63.4 percent in nursing education and the remainder
in other categories). Nurses with doctorates in nursing are
more likely to be employed in nursing (4,141) than in
nonnursing work (100~. Nurses win doctorates in related
fields also tend to be employed in nursing positions (5,421),
but increasing numbers are finding positions outside of nurs-
ing (1,622) (Moses, 1993~. The average salary for nurses
with doctorates employed in universities and 4-year col-
leges was $54,468 in 1992 (AACN, 1992~.
There is little influence of non-U.S. citizens on He sci-
entific labor force in nursing because most non-U.S. citi-
zens return to their countries of origin after doctoral study.
OUTLOOK FOR NURSING
RESEARCH PERSONNEL
The need for skilled research personnel in nursing is ex-
pected to expand in the decades ahead. Several new initia-
tives are proposed to test innovative community-based strat-
egies to provide for health promotion and disease prevention
activities, especially for high-risk populations. There is new
75
interest in the implications of cultural diversity for health
and for developing effective health care interventions.
Nurse researchers have developed a track record in this area
of research with vulnerable populations and have the col-
laborative networks established to expand in this area.
A very small proportion of nurses enrolled in doctoral
nursing research programs receive NRSA support. NEAR
supported 261 NRSA positions in 1991. This number rep-
resented 9 percent of the total number of students enrolled
in nursing doctoral programs and 22 percent of those who
were full time students (Bednash et al., 1993~.
Many nurses in research training programs study part
time because of the lack of resources and the need to work.
Financial support for doctoral or postdoctoral study in nurs-
ing research is basically nonexistent from nongovernment
resources. Nurses completing doctorates in nursing report
the highest percent of primary support from personal re-
sources (73 percent) compared with the biomedical sciences
(22.1 percent) and behavioral sciences (59.4 percent).
Nurses also report the lowest percent of support from the
university (7.2 percent) compared win biomedical sciences
(52.3 percent) and behavioral sciences (32.3 percent). Fed-
eral support for nurses win degrees in nursing and the bio-
medical or behavioral sciences was lower than federal sup-
port for nonnurses (Survey of Earned Doctorates, 1993~.
More nurses with doctorates are needed as faculty for
schools of nursing. Only three-fifths (59.7 percent) of nurse
faculty members with full-time appoinDnents in schools of
nursing offering doctoral programs hold earned doctorates.
And only one-quarter (24.7 percent) of He faculty in insti-
tutions offering the baccalaureate degree hold a doctorate
(Bednash et al., 19934. Nursing still has a great distance
to go before its academic faculty are fully prepared educa-
tionally.
Another concern is the age of nursing school faculty.
The mean age for faculty in schools with doctoral programs
is 49.2 (Bednash et al., 1993~. If young nurse scientists are
not trained and recruited to academic institutions, there will
be few well- qualified researchers to replace He present
pool of scientists as they retire in the next two decades.
Most of the projections of need for nurses with doctoral
preparation have focused on predoctoral training and have
not addressed He needs of nurses with a basic research
preparation to build a program of research. Because Here
is such a tremendous demand for nurses with doctorates in
schools of nursing, faculty have many other teaching re-
sponsibilities and often delay developing an active program
of research. Fewer than 50 nurses were supported in 1992
by the NRSA program for postdoctoral study.
There is also a growing demand for nurses with doctor-
ates in service settings where the focus is on clinical re-
search, clinical therapeutics, and quality of care. The small
supply of nurses with doctoral research preparation con
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MEETING THE NATION'S NEEDS FOR BIOMEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENTISTS
trasts with the large demand for more researchers to gener-
ate nursing information and necessitates formulation of a
plan to revitalize funding for nursing research training.
ENSURING DIVERSITY OF HUMAN RESOURCES
Minorities
Although the number of minority nurses with doctoral
preparation has steadily increased since 1985, minorities
represent a very small proportion of faculty members in
schools of nursing. Table 7-1 displays relative distribution
of U.S. nursing school faculty by racial and ethnic composi-
tion in 1992. If we are to adequately address issues of
minority representation and health concerns, recruitment of
minorities into doctoral programs and as faculty members is
a high priority.
Age
On average, nurses completing doctoral work are a de-
cade older than their colleagues in other disciplines. They
are moving into clinical practice after obtaining a bachelor
of science degree and a master's degree, and proceeding
into advanced clinical practice or academic roles before en-
tering doctoral programs. This lock-step career progression
does not encourage talented young nurses to pursue an in-
terest in research training early in their careers. Table 7-2
shows the relative distribution of basic biomedical science
and nursing work force by gender and age. In 1992 the
mean age of assistant professors with an earned doctorate
was 46.8 years.
Gender
Despite efforts to attract men to this area, nursing re-
search continues to be dominated by women. Between 1985
and 1991, 96.5 percent of people with nursing doctorates
were women and only 3.5 percent were male.
THE NRSA PROGRAM IN NURSING RESEARCH
Research Gaining and career development are a major
component of He long-range plan of the NINR and have
consistently received strong interest from Congress. The
NINR supported a total of about 255 trainees in 1991 and
1992 (Table 7-3), although more trainees were supported in
1991 and 1992 Han in 1993. The number remains well
below the level recommended by He National Academy of
Sciences of 320 trainees by 1990 (NRC, 1985~. Only 16
percent of trainees funded are in postdoctoral Gaining, a
figure which has remained relatively constant since 1988.i
Table 7-4 provides data on He total number of trainees
(liTTPs) supported by year and by individual (F31, F32,
and F33) and institutional (T32) awards Trough 1990. The
proportion of individual fellowships to traineeships pla-
teaued at approximately 60 percent individual and 40 per-
cent institutional awards in 1989.
As of FY 1992, there were 18 institutional awards. The
number of institutional awards is expected to increase
gradually as programs of research develop within the
schools of nursing that are research intensive (NINR files).
The individual award (F31 and F32) has provided nurses
with the flexibility to create programs of study within geo-
graphic proximity to their homes and to cross discipline
boundaries, obtaining doctorates in a variety of health-re-
lated fields. Individual trainees have been encouraged to
create a team of mentors, led by one primary sponsor, who
can provide the specific expertise in methods, measurement,
and clinical content that fits He needs of the student.
NRSA postdoctoral support increased from 14 full-t~me
Gaining positions (FTTPs) (8 percent of total Fl1Ps) in
1986 to 42 FlTPs (16 percent of total FTTPs) in 1992
(Table 7-3~. The benefits of postdoctoral study are begin
TABLE 7-l Relative Distribution of U.S. Nursing School Faculty
by Racial and Ethnic Composition, 1992 (All Faculty)
l
Racial and Ethnic CategoryNumber Percent
,
White6~959 91.8
Black391 5.2
Hispanic95 1.2
Native American20 0.3
Asian108 1.4
SOURCE: American Association of Colleges of Nursing, 1992.
76
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NURSING RESEARCH PERSONNEL
TABLE 7-2 Relative Distributions of Nurses with Doctorates Compared
with the Basic Biomedical Science Work Force by Gender and Age, 1991
Gender
Nurses with
Age Group DoctoratesC
Biomedicalb MenWomen
TOTAL N
11,235 91,959 70,30921,605
25-29 % .5 2.4 2.03.9
30-34 4.8 13.1 11.318.7
35-39 10.0 22.2 20.726.8
4044 26.9 19.9 19.421.4
4549 16.0 18.4 19.415.1
50-54 18.6 11.6 12.97.4
55-59 15.0 6.5 7.53.3
60~4 4.7 4.0 4.52.3
65~9 3.6 1.8 2.00.9
70+ .7 0.2 0.20.2
Total 100.8 100.1 99.9100.0
(Median Age) (47.0) (42.0) (43.6)(39.1)
fin percent, may not total 100 because of rounding.
Moses, 1993,
CIncludes Ph.D. holders working in biomedical science fields and includes postdoctorates.
SOURCE: National Institute of Nursing Research, special tabulations, 1993.
ning to be recognized in the nursing research community.
However, with the current funding levels of postdoctoral
trainees and fellows combined with an attractive job market
and the average age of 41 for nurses completing doctoral
study, it is difficult to attract large numbers into the program.
To date, most of the NINR's NRSA program has sup-
ported predoctoral fellows and trainees because of the ur-
gent need to increase the number of adequately prepared
researchers. Less than 20 percent of the awards support
postdoctoral research training. Efforts need to be expanded
to encourage nurses who recently have completed their doc-
toral studies to pursue postdoctoral training. Increases in
the stipends will be a first step in recognizing the need to
provide financial incentives.
These issues underscore the need to incorporate creative
and flexible procedures for managing NNSA awards, such
as allowing interrupted appointments for other work and
personal responsibilities. Multiple alternative methods for
77
research training need to be developed to decrease the time
needed for nurses to complete their doctorates after obtain-
ing their professional nursing degrees and to enhance their
research productivity.
RECOMMENDATIONS
In fiscal 1993, NINR had approximately 236 positions
available for NRSA awards.2 An increase in positions is
needed to increase the number of well-qualified nurse re-
searchers in the field and to advance He science of nursing
research.
Program Size
On the basis of the number of doctoral programs in nurs-
ing and the number of research-intensive environments, an
adequate infrastructure already exists within the nursing re
OCR for page 78
MEETING THE NATION'S NEEDS FOR BIOMEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENTISTS
TABLE 7-3 Aggregated Numbers of NRSA Supported Trainees and Fellows
in Nursing Research for FY 1991 through FY 1993
Fiscal Type of Support
Year Level of Training TOTAL Trameeship Fellowship
1991 Number of awards 255 93 162
Predoctoral 220 67 153
Postdoctoral 35 26 9
1992 Number of awards 257 103 154
Predoctoral 217 75 142
Postdoctoral 40 28 12
1993 Number of awards 236 112 124
Predoctoral 188 76 112
Postdoctoral 48 36 12
. . .
NOTE: Based on estimates provided by the National Institutes of Health. See Summary Table 1.
search community to respond to an increase in the number
of awards. The growth in the number of schools with re-
search-intensive environments is expected to continue, thus
providing a sufficient number of programs and resources
for an expanded NRSA program in nursing research.
With the proposed changes in health care reform, contin-
ued development of a strong scientific base from nursing
research for practice is essential for preparing advanced
practice specialists to care for the rapidly changing needs of
high-risk and underserved patient populations.
RECOMMENDATION: The committee recommends
Hat the number of positions available for preparation in
nursing research increase from approximately 236 awards
in fiscal 1993 to 500 positions in fiscal 1996. These posi-
tions should be phased in yearly as properly qualified can-
didates and training sites present themselves (Table 7-5~.
Balance in Mechanisms of Support
Because nursing research is a burgeoning field of sci-
ence, Here is a critical need to have an increased number of
highly trained nurse researchers to develop information Hat
is at the cutting edge for nursing practice and health care.
Support for research Paining at He Predoctoral level must
be expanded to increase the number of nurse researchers
prepared at the postdoctoral level. As the number of NRSA
positions increase by the year 1999, there will be a progres-
sive shift toward an eventual balance between He propor-
tion of funding to Predoctoral and postdoctoral fellows and
trainees.
NRSA awards at both pre- and postdoctoral levels re-
main the primary mechanism for financial support for ~ain-
ing of nurse researchers. There is a critical need to prepare
an adequate pool of qualified nurse researchers to fill He
TABLE 7- 4 Numbers of NRSA Supported Trainees and Fellows Supported
bv NINR in FY 1986 through FY 1990.
Type of Support
Fiscal Training Grants TOTAL
Year Number Positions Fellowships POSITIONS
1986 2 14 151 165
1987 9 36 131 167
1988 1 1 55 13 1 186
1989 12 69 150 219
1990 16 89 168 257
SOURCE: National ldstitute of Nursing Research, Special Tabulations, 1993.
78
OCR for page 79
Fiscal
Year
1994
NURSING RESEARCH PERSONNEL
TABLE 7-5 Committee Recommendations for Relative Distribution of
Predoctoral and Postdoctoral Tra~neeship and Fellowship Awards for Nursing
Research for FY 1994 through FY 1999
Type of Support
TOTAL Trameeship Fellowship
340
290
50
Level of Training
Recommended number of awards
Predoctoral
Postdoctoral
130
95
35
210
195
15
1995 Recommended number of awards 420 160 260
Predoctoral 360 120 240
Postdoctoral 60 40 20
1996 Recommended number of awards 500 195 305
Predoctoral 430 145 285
Postdoctoral 70 50 20
1997 Recommended number of awards 500 195 305
Predoctoral 430 145 285
Postdoctoral 70 50 20
1998 Recommended number of awards
Predoctoral
Postdoctoral
1999 Recommended number of awards
Predoctoral
Postdoctoral
500
430
70
500
430
70
195
145
50
305
285
20
195 305
145 285
50 20
demands for faculty positions in research-intensive envi-
ronments. Flexible and creative mechanisms must be es-
tablished to meet the increasing demand for qualified fac
ulty in research-intensive environments.
RECOMMENDATION: As the number of awards in
nursing research expands, emphasis should be given
equally to the development of Predoctoral and postdoc-
toral awards.
NOTES
1. The predoctoral/postdoctoral split in nursing research was 86 per-
cent/14 percent in 1988, 85 percent/15 percent in 1989 and 84 percent/16
percent 1990.
2. According to the National Institute for Nursing Research, the num-
ber of positions in 1993 was reduced due to an increase in Predoctoral
stipends in the absence of budget adjustments.
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1993
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MEETING THE NATION'S NEEDS FOR BIOMEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENTISTS
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and R. McCorkle
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
nurse researchers
