|
Items in cart [0] |
Questions? Call 888-624-8373 |
| Copyright © 2009. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Terms of Use and Privacy Statement |
Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole.
Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter.
Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.
Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines.
OCR for page 557
Nuclear Wastes: Technologies for Separations and Transmutation
Index
A
Abrogation of treaties, 106, 107-108, 374-375
Accelerator transmutation of waste (ATW), 2, 4, 5, 13, 14, 27, 28-29 , 49, 51-52, 56-57, 78, 80, 241-284
aqueous, 66-67, 71, 80, 81, 83, 85, 249, 251, 252-257, 272-273, 276-278 , 280-281
blanket assembly, 46, 57, 247, 248, 280
economics, 76, 85, 112, 282
feasibility, 5-6, 28, 75-76, 85
fluid fuel system, 28, 74, 83, 85, 270-271
heat removal, 29, 73, 85
molten salt processes, 3, 28, 44, 46, 47, 48, 394
nonaqueous, 67, 80, 81, 83, 251, 258-265, 278-279, 281, 388, 393
power production, 14, 18, 29, 265
regulation, 123, 124
and repository disposal, 83, 124, 395
research and development, 28, 29, 48, 75-76, 394, 452
safety issues, 28, 29, 73-74, 111, 265-273, 385, 387-388, 391, 392-395
separations for, 3-4, 30, 43, 44, 46-48, 262-263, 394
see also CURE (Clean Use of Reactor Energy) study;
Phoenix accelerator
Accidents, 74, 384
health effects, 109, 110, 142
transportation, 102, 109
ACTINEX process, 448
Actinide burning (fissioning), 12-13, 14, 26, 45.
See also Advanced liquid metal reactor (ALMR);
Transmutation technology
Actinides, 2, 12, 21, 22, 28, 39, 485
minor (MA), 32, 33, 72, 84, 404
repository risk, 1, 3, 25-26, 33
separation, 2, 13, 29, 39, 40, 41, 43, 45
transmutation, 3, 26, 85, 348
see also Transuranics (TRU)
Activation products, 21-22, 31, 39
Adsorptive separations, 173
Advanced light-water reactor (ALWR), 14, 27, 119, 228-231
Advanced liquid metal reactor (ALMR), 2, 4-5, 13, 14, 27-28, 55-56 , 70, 78, 80, 83, 84, 201-224, 400, 463-464
as breeder reactor, 14, 28, 70, 84
cooling system, 388, 398
demonstrations, 28, 217-218
economics, 7, 28, 75, 78, 85, 112, 115-116, 218-224, 436, 440-442, 443, 468
feasibility, 5, 28, 75, 85-85
health risks, 108-109, 110-111, 464, 466
integral fast reactor (IFR) program, 14, 27-28, 30, 49, 55, 84-85, 107, 108, 369-370, 375-376, 388-389, 398, 399, 452
licensing, 28, 466, 467
and new LWR construction, 70, 80, 81
Power Reactor, Innovative, Small Module (PRISM) program, 14, 55, 202
proliferation issues, 107, 108, 369, 374, 375-376, 377-378
OCR for page 558
Nuclear Wastes: Technologies for Separations and Transmutation
and repository disposal, 100, 101, 341-344, 398, 400-401, 466-468
research and development, 28, 54, 75, 84-85, 126, 349
safety issues, 28, 73, 211-214, 215, 387, 388-389, 397-401
separations for, 3, 30, 43, 45-46, 389, 399-400
transportation issues, 375, 378
TRU transmutation, 2, 4-5, 14, 28, 61-66, 71, 82, 83, 84-85, 207-209
Airborne releases, see Atmospheric releases
ALARA (As Low as Reasonably Achievable) concept, 121, 485
Alkaline wastes, 16, 43
Alkanes, 42
Alkyl phosphates, 38
ALMR, see Advanced liquid metal reactor (ALMR)
Aluminum cladding, 89, 147
Aluminum salts, 38, 89, 95, 147
ALWR, see Advanced light-water reactor
Americium (Am), 25, 27, 28, 31, 40, 83
decay heat, 39-32
repository risk, 33, 34, 82, 100
separations, 3, 37, 41, 42, 45, 47
ANL, see Argonne National Laboratory
Aqueous separations, 13, 14, 27, 29, 30, 38, 40-43, 47, 107, 148-150
for ATW systems, 3-4, 46, 47-48
and decay heat, 3-4, 46
economics, 112, 117
REDOX process, 38, 147, 150-151
solvent extraction processes, 29, 38, 40, 47, 169-172, 179
Aqueous transport, see Groundwater dissolution and migration
Argentina, uranium enrichment, 357, 362, 363, 372
Argonne National Laboratory (ANL)
ALMR/IFR development, 14, 28, 49, 54, 452
LWR fuel reprocessing, 158-164
pyroprocessing separations, 29, 30, 41, 43, 46, 155-158, 417
Armed forces, 106
Atmospheric releases, 99, 385
carbon-14, 26
see also Gaseous releases
Atomic Energy Act (AEA), 19, 121, 122, 123
Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), 14, 55, 118, 413, 414, 466
Atomic Vapor Laser Isotope Separation (AVLIS) system, 175-176
ATW, see Accelerator transmutation of waste (ATW)
Automation, 107
B
Background radiation, 3, 26, 34, 111
Barnwell, South Carolina, reprocessing plant, 116, 165-166, 414, 428
Baseline, see Once-through fuel cycle
Batch refueling, 354, 373
Batch reprocessing, 40, 46, 126, 396
Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories, 49, 450
Bechtel, 116
Belgium, 168
Bidentate extractants, 170-171
Bilateral agreements, 106, 360, 361, 363, 366, 372
Bismuth phosphate (BiPO4) process, 38, 150
Blanket system, 38, 46, 57, 247, 248, 280, 373-374
Blood-forming cells, 25
BNL, see Brookhaven National Laboratory
Bone cancer, 25
Boundary-layer heating, 74, 270-271
Brazil, uranium enrichment, 357, 362, 363, 372
Breeder reactors, 27, 39, 45, 60, 367, 415
and proliferation concerns, 361, 362, 374, 375-376
see also Advanced liquid metal reactor (ALMR)
Breeding ratios, 27, 28
Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL), 14, 46, 49, 57, 390, 404, 452
Bulk materials, 40, 44, 47, 107
Burial, see Surface storage and disposal
BUTEX process, 29
C
Cadmium salts, 43
Calcine, see Solidified defense waste
Canada, sales to India, 358, 361, 414
Cancer deaths, 3, 34, 102, 108, 109, 110
Cancrinites, 89
CANDU reactor, 358, 361, 362, 373
Capital costs, 77, 78, 113-114, 116, 417-426, 443-444
Capsules, see Encapsulation
Carbonates, 40, 176-177
Carbon dioxide (CO2), 26
Carbon-14, 22, 26, 84, 101
OCR for page 559
Nuclear Wastes: Technologies for Separations and Transmutation
packaging and waste forms, 26, 31, 34, 84, 100
radiation doses, 26, 34
releases, 26, 34, 99, 100, 318, 338, 345
separations, 26, 100
Carter Administration policies, 18, 118, 362, 414
Catastrophes, see Accidents; Natural disasters
Caustic solutions, 40, 147
Certification, see Licensing and certification
Cesium (Cs), 24, 31, 33
decay heat, 11, 23, 24, 32, 39, 323, 326
in defense waste, 16, 87, 89, 95, 98
groundwater dissolution and migration, 72, 333
health risk, 23, 335
separation and extraction, 40, 42, 43
storage and disposal, 47, 326, 342-343
transmutation, 50, 72
Chalmers University of Technology, 451
Chemical reprocessing, 335, 371, 372
China
nuclear weapons program, 104, 367
reprocessing activities, 447
Chitin, 177
Chlorides, 38, 39, 43, 84, 85, 175
Chopping, 30, 147
Civilian waste, see Spent fuel (commercial LWR)
Cladding, 3, 22, 34, 45, 89, 147, 488
Zircaloy, 34, 45, 83, 89, 141, 147
Class C waste, 28, 44, 101
Clean Air Act (CAA), 121, 124
Clean Water Act, 124
Clinch River fast reactor, 369
Clinton Administration policies, 106, 108, 367-368
Commercial waste, see Spent fuel (commercial LWR)
Commission of the European Communities (CEC), 449, 452-453
Complete Test Ban Treaty, 367
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, 19
Constant nuclear power scenario, 2, 60
ALMR transmutation, 61-64, 65, 80-81, 83
ATW, 66-68, 81, 83
deployments, 80-81
LWR transmutation, 68-70
TRU ratio, 71
Cooling systems, 38, 44
ALMR, 388, 398
Curium, 385
Costs and economics, 2, 6-7, 8, 77-78, 84-85, 112-119 passim, 413-444
ALMR, 7, 28, 75, 78, 85, 112, 115-116, 218-224, 436, 440-442, 443, 468
ATW, 76, 85, 112, 282
dose reductions, 110-111
Hanford tank waste remediation, 39, 40, 93-97 passim, 191-193
LWR transmuters, 5, 75, 78, 84, 112, 239-241
PBR, 77, 297
Phoenix, 307-308
power plants, 13, 118
pyroprocessing, 7, 40, 43, 112, 417, 441-442, 443
repositories, 12, 16, 101
separations, 37, 39, 112, 117, 442-443
see also Financing issues
Counterproliferation policy, 106, 365-366
Covert operations, 106-107, 366
Iraq, 105, 363-364
North Korea, 105, 364-365
Criticality and critical mass
in accelerators, 46
in separations, 40
in waste deposits, 100-101
Critical reactors, 51, 55-56.
See also Advanced liquid metal reactor (ALMR);
Fast reactors;
LWR transmutation technology;
Particle-bed reactor (PBR);
Thermal reactors
CURE (Clean Use of Reactor Energy) study, 2, 14, 49, 55, 72, 179, 387, 390, 406-408, 452
Curium (Cm), 3, 25, 27, 40, 45, 46, 47, 83
Czechoslovakia, separations research, 42, 447-448
D
Deaf Smith County, Texas, site, 15
Decay heat and radioactivity, 11, 21, 23, 32, 39, 348
and accelerators, 388, 396
and reactor site storage, 1n, 11
and repository performance, 8, 23, 31, 32, 99, 101, 315, 320-328, 348, 467
Yucca Mountain site, 8, 31, 32, 58, 100, 101, 317, 328, 467
Declining nuclear power ("phase-out") scenario, 2, 60, 71, 99
ALMR transmutation, 64-66, 71, 80, 83
ATW, 68, 71, 80
OCR for page 560
Nuclear Wastes: Technologies for Separations and Transmutation
deployments, 78-80
LWR transmutation, 70, 71, 79-80
Decontamination factors (DF), 30, 41, 47
Defense Nuclear Facilities Safety Board (DNFSB), 27
Defense production wastes, 9-10, 11, 16-17, 27, 39, 126
in civilian repositories, 2, 15, 17, 18
DOE management, 11, 29-30, 39-40
high-level (HLW), 16-17, 31, 32, 37, 126
low-level (LLW), 16, 37
pyroprocessing, 29-30, 43
separation processes, 16, 17, 32, 37, 38, 39-40, 88-89, 148
site remediation, 39, 93, 98, 126
Demonstration and pilot projects, 82, 126
ALMR, 28, 217-218
ATW, 28
defense waste site remediation, 39, 93, 98, 126
pyroprocessing, 28, 30, 46, 47
separations processes, 3, 9, 29, 30, 32, 37, 39, 42, 47
Department of Energy (DOE), 14, 16, 17, 19, 47
ALMR/IFR program, 27-28, 30, 84
defense waste management programs, 11, 29-30, 39-40
and MRS facility, 15, 16, 18
S&T research funding, 1, 54
WIPP compliance demonstration, 17, 99, 119
and Yucca Mountain site, 1, 16, 32, 124
Depleted uranium, 27, 386
Developing countries, proliferation concerns, 105, 106, 361, 365, 414
Development, see Demonstration and pilot projects; Research and development
Dialysis, 174
DIAMEX process, 42
Dicarbollide, 42, 171, 447
(beta-)Diketones, 175
Dilution processes, 40, 357
Disasters, see Natural disasters
Dissolution processes, 30, 40, 43, 147
DOE, see Department of Energy
Dose, see Individual dose standard; Radiation doses
Drilling, 34, 335, 336, 338
Dry-cask storage, 124, 144
''Dual-use" concerns, 104
DuPont, 116
E
Earthquakes and seismic activity, 26, 33
Eastern Europe, see Russia and former Soviet bloc
EBR-1 reactor, 389, 398
EBR-II reactor, 388, 389, 398, 399
Economics, see Costs and economics
Effective dose equivalent, 16, 23
Electricity, see Energy production
Electrochemical separations, 39, 43-44, 46, 155
Electrodeposition, 180
Electrodialysis, 174
Electromagnetic separation, 371
Electrophoresis, 178
Electrorefining, 37, 39, 43, 47
Encapsulation, 1, 22, 32, 37
Hanford site, 16, 87, 89
Energy Policy Act (PL 102-486), 26, 34
Energy production ALMR , 108
efficiencies, 53, 81, 271-273
and health and safety risk, 108, 109, 110-111, 386, 392
projected nuclear capacity, 13-14, 77-81 passim
recoveries from spent fuel, 2, 11, 18, 61-70
Energy Reorganization Act, 124
Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA), 14
Environmental impact statements, 14, 19, 118, 121
Environmental issues, 384
reactors, 142
repositories, 145
temporary storage, 143, 144
uranium processing, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Hanford Site , 19
health-based standards, 15, 16, 26, 34, 318
standard 40CFR101 , 15, 34, 83, 336, 338, 344-348
uranium mining and processing regulation, 121
WIPP facility standards, 15, 17, 99
Yucca Mountain standards, 15, 16, 26, 34, 83n, 101, 124, 318
EPA, see Environmental Protection Agency
Euratom safeguards, 361
Eurochemic, 168
Europe
enrichment and reprocessing activities, 105, 106, 114-115, 117
proliferation safeguards, 361, 363
OCR for page 561
Nuclear Wastes: Technologies for Separations and Transmutation
Evaporators, 180-181
Exposure, see Radiation exposure
Exxon reprocessing plant, 116
F
Facilitated transport membrane process, 174
Facilities and support, 6, 118, 119
ALMR, 209-211, 215-216
ATW, 265
LWR transmutation, 120, 232-234, 389
PBR, 289-292
Phoenix, 304
proliferation issues, 106, 107, 108, 360-361
see also Integrated reprocessing facilities
Fast Flux Test Facility (FFTF), 57, 388, 389, 398
Fast reactors, 2, 55-56
proliferation issues, 357, 373-374
safety issues, 387, 388, 389, 391, 398
see also Advanced liquid metal reactor (ALMR);
Integral Fast Reactor (IFR)
Feasibility, 5-6, 81-82, 84-85
ALMR, 5, 28, 75, 85-85
ATW, 5-6, 28, 75-76, 85
LWR transmuters, 5, 27, 74-75, 84
PBR, 76-77
Phoenix, 77
Federal government, see Atomic Energy Commission; Defense production wastes; Department of Energy; Environmental Protection Agency; Government financing; Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Federal Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA), 121
Feed Materials processing Center (Fernald), 89
Fermi reactor, 389, 398, 466
Fertile nuclides, 26
Financing issues, 8, 114-115, 117, 119-120, 427-431
power plants, 118
Fissioning, see Actinide burning
Fission products, 12, 23-25
groundwater solubility and transport, 1, 3, 23, 26, 33, 72
human intrusion, 23, 320
ingestion toxicity, 24, 25
packaging and waste forms, 2, 24-25, 335
repository risk, 1, 23-25, 33, 100
separations, 2, 12, 30, 38, 39, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 99
transmutation, 14, 50, 100
ALMR, 3, 28, 81, 100
ATW, 3, 28, 46, 81, 387
LWR, 3, 14, 27, 31, 81
reductions in inventory, 52, 72
see also Cesium;
Iodine;
Strontium;
Technetium
Flocculation, 40
Fluid fuel systems, 28, 74, 83, 85, 270-271
Fluid transport, see Groundwater dissolution and migration
Fluoride salts, 38, 44
Fluoride volatility processes, 38, 44, 46, 47, 152-153, 174-175, 180
Foreign Assistance Act, 361-362, 363
France
nuclear weapons program, 104
Phoenix reactor problems, 389, 398
PUREX use, 37, 41, 167, 448
repository development, 448
reprocessing activity, 40, 167, 362, 448
S&T development, 29, 42, 448, 454
UP3 reprocessing complex, 113, 115, 117, 369, 416, 418-419
Fuel fabrication, 21, 27, 31, 84, 120, 141
ALMR, 215-216
health effects, 109, 110, 141
LWR recycling, 233-234, 237-238
proliferation issues, 106, 107
regulation, 122
residual wastes, 234
Fused salt, 177-178
G
Gas centrifuge process, 148, 178, 181, 357, 371-372
Gaseous diffusion, 38, 357, 371
Gaseous releases, 34
carbon-14, 26, 34, 99, 318, 338, 345
see also Atmospheric releases
Gas pocketing, 271
General Electric (GE), 14, 28, 49, 54, 55, 116, 117, 201, 202, 413-414, 417, 452, 467
Generic Environmental Statement on Mixed Oxides, 118, 414
Geologic media, 385
heat capacity and thermal design, 32, 100
unsaturated, 26, 34, 100, 321, 329, 331
water saturation and infiltration, 33, 327
see also Granite repositories;
Salt deposits;
Tuff
OCR for page 562
Nuclear Wastes: Technologies for Separations and Transmutation
Germany
repository characterization, 315
reprocessing and enrichment activities, 168, 369n, 449
sales to Iraq, 364
Glass matrices, see Vitrification
Glenn-Symington Amendment, 361-362
Government financing, 8, 114-115, 117, 119, 120, 430, 431
power plants, 118
Granite repositories, 33, 34, 330, 336, 337, 494
Graphite reactors, 38, 357-358, 372-373, 390
Groundwater dissolution and migration, 1, 3, 33, 81, 82, 99, 100, 318-320, 329, 332-335, 336, 339, 340, 346
contamination caused by human intrusion, 34, 338
fission products, 1, 3, 23, 26, 33, 72
and ingestion toxicity, 23
radiation doses, 100, 328-335
H
Hanford, Washington, site, 15, 116
low-level waste (LLW) disposal, 87, 93, 98
plutonium production, 37-38, 89, 95, 369
soil contamination, 87, 90-92
waste tanks, 9-10, 16-17, 18-19, 87-98, 126, 181
remediation costs, 39, 40, 93-97 passim, 191-193
repository disposal, 192-193, 467
vitrification, 19, 93, 94, 95, 96, 98, 191-192
Hanford Federal Facility Agreement and Consent Order (Tri-Party Agreement) , 18-19
Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984, 19
Health-based standards, 15, 16, 26, 34, 318
Health risks, 3, 22, 23-27, 108-112, 119, 384
actinides, 24, 25-26, 108-109, 111
ALMR, 108-109, 110-111, 464, 466
carbon-14, 26, 34
fission products, 23-25
latent cancer deaths, 3, 34, 102, 108, 109, 110
once-through cycle, 3, 22, 109-110, 111, 137-145
temporary storage, 143, 144
uranium mining and processing, 3, 26-27, 74, 108, 109, 110
see also Ingestion toxicity;
Radiation doses;
Repository risk;
Safety issues;
Toxicity index
Heat, decay, see Decay heat and radioactivity
Heavy water reactors (HWRs), 357-358, 372-373
Hexone, 38
High-level waste (HLW), 494
defense, 16-17, 31, 32, 37, 126
see also Spent fuel (commercial LWR)
Highly enriched uranium (HEU), 28, 105, 106, 356, 357, 359, 371-372
High neutron flux, 13, 14, 22, 44, 45, 50-51
in ATW, 28-29, 44, 45, 47
High-temperature gas-cooled reactors (HTGRs), 387, 390, 404, 452
Human intrusion, 16, 34, 99, 320, 336, 338, 345, 347
actinides release risks, 1, 3, 26, 81
and fast flux systems, 100
fission products risks, 23, 320
groundwater contamination caused by, 34, 338
radiation doses, 99, 111, 335-336, 337
and thermal flux systems, 100
TRU and plutonium risks, 31, 34, 82, 99, 100, 320
uranium tailing mounds, 27
WIPP facility, 99
Hydrocarbons, 42
Hydrogen fluoride, 44
I
Idaho Chemical Processing Site, 16, 39
Idaho National Engineering Laboratory, 17, 54, 126
Imports and exports
Iraq, 364
nuclear materials, 360, 367-368
nuclear technology and systems, 105, 361, 362, 364, 366
India
proliferation concerns, 105, 358, 360, 361, 362, 414
reprocessing activities, 105, 168
research activities, 449
Individual dose standard, 16, 34, 317
Infiltration, 26, 27, 33
Ingestion toxicity, 23-26
Inhalation toxicity, 23
Injury and disease, 109, 110
Inorganic exchangers, 41, 43, 126, 172-173
Institutional issues, 8, 12, 16, 118, 119, 120
in early repository decisions, 14, 15
Integral Fast Reactor (IFR), 14, 27-28, 30, 49, 55, 84-85, 107, 108 , 369-370, 375-376, 388-389, 398, 399, 452
separation processes, 43-44, 45-46, 155-158
OCR for page 563
Nuclear Wastes: Technologies for Separations and Transmutation
Integrated reprocessing facilities, 13, 392
ATW, 28, 46, 394
and proliferation concerns, 107, 108
transportation issues, 102, 103, 104
Integrated S&T systems, 6, 11, 13, 22, 81-82, 119
health and safety impacts, 386-387, 392
Interim storage, see Monitored retrievable storage
International activities, reprocessing, 54-55, 167-168, 447-455 passim.
See also Proliferation issues
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 104, 356, 453
inspections, 105, 106-107, 359, 360-361, 363-365, 366
safeguard system, 104 n, 105, 106, 355, 356, 357, 358-361, 363-365, 366-367, 373
International Fuel Cycle Evaluation Group (INFCE), 107, 362, 414, 415
Intrusion, see Human intrusion
Inventory fraction, 83
Iodine (I)
groundwater transport, 1, 3, 23, 26, 33, 329, 332
packaging and waste forms, 24, 25, 31, 35, 81, 82, 84
repository risk, 23-25, 330, 331, 343
separations, 44, 400
transmutation, 2, 3, 14, 24, 25, 31, 50, 81
Ion exchange and adsorption, 29, 39, 40, 41, 42-43, 47, 95, 126, 172-173, 179, 495
Ionic solvents, 38
Iran, proliferation concerns, 365, 366
Iraq
Israeli air strike, 106, 108n
weapons program and special inspections, 105, 355, 361, 363-364, 371
Iron hydroxide, 38, 40
Irradiated Source Program, 89
Isolation standards, 12, 15, 17
Isopropyl benzene, 42
Ispra Joint Research Center, 449, 452, 453
Israel
air strike against Iraqi reactor, 106, 108n
proliferation concerns, 105, 360, 362
Italy, 449, 453
J
Japan
enrichment and reprocessing activity, 41, 105, 106, 168, 362, 363, 367-368, 449, 454
Rokkashomura reprocessing plant, 113, 115, 117, 369, 416, 419
S&T activities, 449-450, 454
Jimson weed, 177
K
Karlsruhe, Germany, 168, 449, 452, 453, 454
Korea, see North Korea; South Korea
K-25 Plant, 89
L
Landfills, see Surface storage and disposal
LANL, see Los Alamos National Laboratory
Lanthanides, 28, 84
Lanthanum fluoride, 38
Laser-induced separation, 175-176, 371, 372
Lead isotopes (Pb), 26, 386
Lead targets, 28
Leukemia, 25
Licensing and certification
ALMRs, 28, 466, 467
ATW, 29
enrichment and separation facilities, 122
interim storage, 18, 123-124
mills, 121
nuclear power plants, 13, 122
Phoenix, 305-306
repositories, 1, 12, 15, 16, 99, 101, 118, 124
Light-water reactors, see Advanced light-water reactor; LWR transmutation technology; Spent fuel (commercial LWR)
Limited Test Ban Treaty, 367
Liquid-cooled graphite reactors (LGR), 38, 353-354, 357-358, 372-373 , 390
Liquid defense wastes, 16, 39
Liquid-metal reactor, see Advanced liquid metal reactor (ALMR)
Lithium (Li), 28, 39, 44, 148
LLW, see Low-level waste
Los Alamos Molten Plutonium Reactor Experiment (LAMPRE), 39
Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL), 14, 17, 47, 49, 54, 57, 89, 452
Low-enriched uranium (LEU), 105
Low-level waste (LLW), 386, 497
defense, 16, 37
disposal, 119, 124
OCR for page 564
Nuclear Wastes: Technologies for Separations and Transmutation
Low-Level Waste Policy Act, 119
LWR (light-water reactor) transmutation technology, 2, 4, 5, 14, 27, 29, 56, 78, 79-80, 224-241
economics, 5, 75, 78, 84, 112, 239-241
feasibility, 5, 27, 74-75, 84
and repository disposal, 100, 403
research and development, 27, 74-75, 84, 126, 239
safety issues, 111, 238-239, 387, 389-390, 391, 401-403
self-generated recycling, 27, 29, 31, 68-70, 82-83, 225-227, 233-234 , 237-238
separations for, 30, 45, 402-403
LWR waste, see Spent fuel (commercial LWR)
Lyons, Kansas, salt mine, 14
M
Magnesium salt, 38
Magnetic separation, 178, 180
Manhattan Engineering District, 37
Materials accountancy, 104n, 107, 359-360
Mechanical disassembly operations, 37, 38, 39, 147
Membrane processes, 173-174
Metallic fuels, 28, 29-30, 38-39, 40, 43, 45, 215
Metallurgical Laboratory, 37-38
Methylisobutyl-ketone (hexone), 38
Microfiltration, 173
Military applications, see Defense production wastes; Proliferation issues
Military deterrence, 106, 365
Minor actinides (MA), 32, 33, 72, 84, 404
targets, 306-307, 396
Mixed-oxide (MOX) fuel, 27, 28, 30, 45, 84, 215
Molten salt processes, 38-39, 43, 147-148, 153-154, 172
Molten Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE), 38, 44
Molybdenum, 44
Monitored retrievable storage (MRS), 1, 15, 16, 326
linkage to repository development, 16, 18
policy issues, 18
political support, 12, 16
Morris, Illinois, reprocessing plant, 165
Mound laboratory, 89
MOX, see Mixed-oxide fuel
MRS, see Monitored retrievable storage
N
National Academy of Sciences, 14, 15, 16, 101
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, 3, 108, 109, 110
National diversion, 106-107, 358, 359, 373, 374
National Energy Strategy, 13-14
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 414
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), 121
National Research Council, 26, 34, 124, 318
Natural agents, 177
Natural disasters, 26, 33-34
Neptunium (Np), 25, 31, 40, 72, 83
decay heat, 39
and oxidizing conditions, 3, 26, 38, 82, 329
repository risk, 25, 33, 34, 343
separation and extraction, 3, 38, 41, 45, 47
Netherlands, 450
Neutron bombardment, 1, 21-22
Neutron capture, 21, 23, 50, 51
Neutron flux, see Fast reactors; High neutron flux; Thermal reactors
Neutron production, 13, 29
New Mexico repository sites, 14
Nitrate salts, 38
Nitric acid, 38, 40, 41, 42, 46, 147
Nonaqueous separations, 13, 14, 29-30, 38-39, 43
for ATW systems, 46-47, 262-263
electrochemical separation process, 39, 43-44, 46, 155
fluoride volatility processes, 38, 44, 46, 47, 152-153, 174-175, 180
molten salt processes, 38-39, 43, 147-148, 153-154, 172
salt transport process, 43, 177-178
Nonproliferation, see Proliferation issues
Nonradioactive materials reduction, 40, 47
Nonradiological health risks, 109, 110
North Korea, proliferation concerns, 105, 355, 364-365
NPT, see Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty
Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT), 105, 106, 356, 358, 360-361 , 362, 363, 366-367, 414, 415
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), 118, 414
containment regulations, 1, 23, 32
dose reduction policy, 110-111
LLW criteria, 44, 124
production facility regulations, 122, 123
Regulation 10CFR60 , 15, 23, 32, 34
repository licensing, 124
OCR for page 565
Nuclear Wastes: Technologies for Separations and Transmutation
retrieval provisions, 18, 32
technical criteria and standards, 16, 34
uranium mining and processing regulation, 121-122
and WIPP project, 15
Nuclear suppliers, see Imports and exports
Nuclear Suppliers Group, 366
Nuclear Waste Fund, 15, 18
Nuclear Waste Policy Act (NWPA), 1n, 11, 14, 15, 17, 18, 114, 124, 415, 430
Nuclear Waste Policy Amendments Act (NWPAA) of 1987, 1n, 15, 17, 18
Nuclear weapons, see Defense production wastes; Proliferation issues
O
Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), 28, 38, 44, 54, 369, 450
health risk study, 3, 108, 110
waste storage and management, 17, 39, 98
Occupational health and safety, 109, 110
uranium mining and milling, 74, 109, 110
Office of the Nuclear Waste Negotiator, 18
OMEGA program, 449-450
Once-through fuel cycle, 1-2, 10, 11, 102, 136-145
economics, 113, 119, 416
health risks, 3, 22, 109-110, 111, 137-145
proliferation issues, 104-106, 108, 355-358, 362
safety issues, 390-391, 392, 408-410
transportation issues, 102, 103, 104
On-line refueling systems, proliferation issues, 359, 372-373
On-site reprocessing, see Integrated reprocessing facilities
On-site storage, see Pool storage; Reactor site storage
Operating costs, 77, 78, 114, 426-427, 443-444
Organic complexant concentrate, 89
Organic diluents, 41, 42
Organic extractants, 40, 41, 42-43, 44, 46, 48, 126
Organic resins, 172
Organization for Economic Coordination and Development/Nuclear Energy Agency (OECD/NEA) , 453-454
cost study, 7, 113, 114, 116, 416, 427, 434, 436
Oxidation-reduction technology, 38
Oxidation states, 40, 44
Oxide fuels, 39, 46, 147, 402
Oxidizing conditions, 1, 329
and carbon-14 release, 34
neptunium sensitivity, 3, 26, 38, 82, 329
Ozonolysis, 179
P
Packaging and waste forms, 3, 9, 99, 100, 101, 315, 329
carbon-14, 26, 31, 34, 84, 100
elevated temperatures, 31, 101, 327, 328
fission products, 2, 24-25, 335
low-solubility, 27, 31, 34-35, 81
optimized, 27, 34-35, 82, 335
transportation, 102-103
see also Encapsulation
Pakistan
proliferation concerns, 105, 360, 362-363
uranium enrichment, 104, 357, 362
Particle-bed reactor (PBR), 2, 14, 49, 70, 73, 285-297
cooling system, 390
economics, 77, 297
research and development, 76-77, 297
safety issues, 292, 296, 386, 387, 390, 403-406
Permian basin, 14
"Phase-out" scenario, see Declining nuclear power scenario
Phoenix accelerator, 2, 49, 57, 77, 297-308
economis, 307-308
and repository disposal, 397
safety issues, 305-306, 386, 388, 395-397
separations for, 396-397
Pipe breaks, 74
Plutonium, human intrusion risks, 31, 34, 82, 99, 100, 320
Plutonium (Pu), 12, 21, 25, 26, 28, 31, 37, 38, 39, 40, 83
proliferation issues, 31, 105, 106, 107, 108, 356, 357, 359, 367-368 , 370-371, 372-373
recovery and purification, 3, 29, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 47
recycling, 11, 14, 18, 27, 31, 39, 82-83, 85
repository risk, 31, 32, 33, 34, 82
transmutation, 2, 27, 31
ALMR, 31, 57, 58
LWR methods, 14, 57-58, 84, 224-225
OCR for page 566
Nuclear Wastes: Technologies for Separations and Transmutation
see also PUREX (plutonium and uranium extraction) process
Policy issues, 8, 17-19, 118-119,
see also Proliferation issues
commercial spent fuel, 17-18, 31
defense wastes, 18-19
Pool storage, 22, 105, 143, 357, 362, 373
at Hanford site, 87
regulation, 123-124
Population radiation doses, 3, 108, 317, 318
Post-Cold War policies, 106, 365-366
Power production, see Energy production
Power Reactor, Innovative, Small Module (PRISM) program, 14, 55, 202
Precipitation, 176-177
Pressler Amendment, 363
Pressure-tube failure, 74, 271
PRISM program, 14, 55, 202
Private industry financing, 114, 115, 117, 119, 120, 427-429
power plants, 118
Process losses, 101
separations, 3, 4, 13, 30, 31, 38, 40, 47, 58, 84
transmutation, 71, 83-84
Proliferation issues, 8, 18, 31, 104-108, 125, 355-378
diversions and theft, 105, 106-107, 358, 359, 360, 373
international safeguards, 104n, 105, 106, 108, 355, 356, 357, 358-361, 363-365, 366-367, 371-373
treaty abrogation, 106, 107-108, 374-375
Promethium (Pm), 38
Protactinium (Pa), 26, 31, 33, 44, 386
groundwater transport, 333
Proton beams, 28, 29, 56, 85, 244-246, 273-276, 387, 393, 452
in Phoenix accelerator, 57, 388
Prototypes, see Demonstration and pilot projects
Public acceptance and opinion, 8, 119, 125
defense wastes, 18
Hanford waste tank disposal, 94, 96
geologic repositories, 11, 12, 14, 16, 118, 386
nuclear power, 13, 118, 414
Public health, see Health risks
PURETEX process, 448
PUREX (plutonium and uranium extraction) process, 3, 14, 37, 38, 40, 41-42, 46, 111, 147, 151-152
and defense wastes, 14, 16
HLW generation, 31, 42
for LWR, 29, 30, 45, 47, 402-403
process losses, 31, 58, 84
safety issues, 391
Pyroprocessing, 3, 28, 29, 31, 37, 38-39, 43, 48, 147, 148
costs, 7, 40, 43, 112, 417, 441-442, 443
defense wastes, 29-30, 43
proliferation issues, 107, 369-371
research and development, 28, 29-30, 43, 46, 47, 155-158
safety issues, 391, 399, 400
R
Radiation doses, 108, 317, 328-336, 337
background, 3, 26, 34, 111
carbon-14, 26, 34
from groundwater releases, 100, 328-335
from human intrusion, 99, 111, 335-336, 337
individual dose standard, 16, 34, 317
population, 3, 108, 317, 318
transmutation effects, 3, 22, 110-111, 341-344
Radiation exposures, 3, 108, 110, 111, 121, 492
human intrusion, 109-110
repository, 99, 328-336
uranium mining and milling, 3, 27, 386
Radioactivity, see Decay heat and radioactivity; Reactivity control; Reactivity transients
Radiolysis and radiation degradation, 3, 40, 42, 43, 47
explosive gases, 74, 271
Radionuclides, see Actinides; Fission products; names of specific elements ;
Radium (Ra), 26, 33n, 334
Radon (Rn), 27, 121, 386
Rare earth metals
potential for recycling, 2, 11
separations, 42, 43
Reactivity control
ALMR, 73
ATW, 29, 85
LWR transmuters, 27, 73, 84, 236, 387, 402
Reactivity transients
ATW, 29, 73, 85, 268-270, 271, 387-388, 393
PBR, 390
Phoenix, 73-74
OCR for page 567
Nuclear Wastes: Technologies for Separations and Transmutation
Reactors, see Advanced light-water reactor; Advanced liquid metal reactor (ALMR); Fast reactors; Graphite reactors; Heavy water reactors; Integral Fast Reactor (IFR); Integrated reprocessing facilities; LWR transmutation technology; On-line refueling systems; Particle-bed reactor (PBR); Reactor site storage; Spent fuel (commercial LWR); Thermal reactors
Reactor site storage, 1, 11, 18, 22, 119, 123-124.
See also Pool storage
Reagan Administration policies, 15, 18, 362
Recycling, 99, 233-234, 237-238
plutonium, 11, 14, 18, 27, 31, 39, 82-83, 85
rare earth metals, 2, 11
uranium, 2, 11, 27, 31
REDOX process, 38, 147, 150-151
Reducing conditions, 1, 3, 33, 329
Regulations and standards, 8, 120-125
defense wastes, 18-19
health-based, 15, 16, 26, 34, 318
monitored retrievable storage, 18, 124
packaging, 1, 23, 32-33, 103
and power plants, 13, 118
and repository development, 12, 16, 118, 124
retrieval of spent fuel, 18, 32
separations plants, 30, 122
by states, 118, 119, 124-125
Release limits
EPA regulations, 26, 34, 83, 101, 121, 124, 318, 336-340, 344-348
NRC regulations, 1, 34, 121
Release pathways, see Atmospheric releases; Gaseous releases; Groundwater dissolution and migration; Human intrusion
Remote handling, 13, 17
as diversion safeguard, 107
fuel fabrication, 31, 120
and pyroprocessing, 37
in separations processes, 38
Repositories (geologic), 1, 11, 145, 490, 494
access to and retrieval from, 2, 10, 18, 32
ALMR waste, 100, 101, 341-344, 398, 400-401, 466-468
ATW wastes, 83, 124, 395
barrier systems, 32, 34, 381, 486
capacity and limits, 1-2, 7-8, 15, 18, 99, 100, 102
costs, 12, 16, 101
and defense wastes, 2, 15, 17, 18
emplacement procedures, 100, 315, 316, 325-326, 492
extension of operating period, 2
history, 14-15, 315, 357, 358
need and scheduling, 2, 10, 12, 16, 101-102, 349, 466-467
of second repository, 82, 99, 101, 102, 118
oxidizing conditions, 1, 3, 26, 34, 38, 82, 329
performance assessments, 99-100, 315-320
political support, 12, 16, 18
proliferation issues, 106
reducing conditions, 1, 3, 33, 329
site characterization, 101, 315
see also Geologic media;
Licensing and certification;
Packaging and waste forms ;
Repository risk
Repository risk, 33-34, 145, 317-320, 385-387, 392, 401
actinides, 1, 3, 25-26, 33, 81, 108-109, 111
fission products, 1, 23-25, 33, 100
once-through cycle, 328
postclosure time scales, 23, 31, 33
proof of safety, 12, 32-33
reduction-and-packaging strategies, 3, 24-25, 35, 37
transmutation technologies reduction of, 3, 33, 34, 35, 81, 320-328 , 348-349, 350, 386-387
see also Gaseous releases;
Groundwater dissolution and migration;
Health risks;
Human intrusion
Reprocessing, 21, 24, 25, 29, 30, 82, 99, 120
for ALMR feedstock, 28, 61-66, 82-83, 209-211, 216-217, 440-442
alternative technologies, 12-13, 40, 164-168
for ATW feedstock, 28, 30, 47-48, 66-68, 82, 247, 249
health risks, 108-109, 110
international activities, 167-168, 447-452
for LWR self-generated recycle, 27, 29, 31, 68-70, 82-83, 225-227
policy issues, 17-18, 31, 166-167
proliferation issues, 31, 105, 106, 107, 356-357, 361-363, 369-371
and repository risk, 100, 341-344
see also Fuel fabrication;
Integrated reprocessing facilities;
PUREX (plutonium and uranium extraction) process;
Pyroprocessing;
Separations technology
Republic of Korea, see South Korea
OCR for page 568
Nuclear Wastes: Technologies for Separations and Transmutation
Research and development, 2, 4, 9, 10, 13, 14, 82, 118, 125-126
ALMR, 28, 54, 75, 84-85, 126, 349
ATW, 28, 29, 48, 75-76, 394, 452
DOE funding, 1, 54
international activities, 54-55, 167-168, 447-455
LWR transmutation, 27, 74-75, 84, 126, 239
PBR, 76-77, 297
pyroprocessing, 28, 29-30, 43, 46, 47, 155-158
separations, 3-4, 29, 30, 32, 37, 42, 168-178, 448
transmutation, 12-13, 54, 74-77, 84-85, 448
see also Demonstration and pilot projects
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), 19, 119, 124
Retrievable storage, 2, 10, 14, 17, 18.
See also Monitored retrievable storage
Reverse osmosis, 174
Risk, see Health risks; Repository risk; Safety issues
Robotics, 13, 95, 107
Rocky Flats Plant, 17, 89
Rokkashomura reprocessing plant, 113, 115, 117, 369, 416, 419
Russia and former Soviet bloc
BN-350 reactor problems, 389, 398
enrichment and reprocessing activities, 37, 41, 105, 168, 362, 363 , 373
proliferation concerns, 104, 106, 365, 366-367
S&T activities, 41, 451
S
Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), 121, 124
Safety issues, 383-392
ALMR, 28, 73, 211-214, 215, 387, 388-389, 397-401
ATW, 28, 29, 73-74, 111, 265-273, 385, 387-388, 391, 392-395
see also Health risks;
Repository risk
Salt cakes, 16, 32, 39, 89, 95, 98, 194
Salt deposits, 14, 315, 502
Salting agents, 38, 147
Salt transport processes, 43, 177-178
Samarium (Sm), 39
Savannah River site, 16, 39, 89, 98, 116
processing facility, 16, 126, 192, 193-199, 369
TRU wastes, 17
Scale-up, see Demonstration and pilot projects
Scherrer, paul, Institute, 451, 454
Separation factors, 30, 40, 43, 47, 148
Separations technology, 13, 371
actinides, 2, 13, 29, 39, 40, 41, 43, 45
ALMR, 3, 30, 43, 45-46, 389, 399-400
ATW, 3-4, 30, 43, 44, 46-48, 262-263, 394
defense wastes, Hanford tanks, 9-10, 16-17, 32, 39, 40, 42, 88-89, 92-96, 98, 180-181
economics, 37, 39, 112, 117, 442-443
history, 37-39
process losses, 3, 4, 13, 30, 31, 38, 40, 47, 58, 84
research and development, 3-4, 29, 30, 32, 37, 42, 168-178, 448
safety issues, 30-31, 37, 40, 111, 385, 386, 391-392
and waste forms, 34, 99
waste reduction and minimization, 13, 39-40, 47
see also Aqueous separations;
Integrated S&T systems;
Nonaqueous separations;
PUREX (plutonium and uranium extraction) process;
Pyroprocessing
Shallow burial, see Surface storage and disposal
Shutdown, 21, 29, 385, 388
of accelerators, 29, 267-268, 387, 393
Siderophores, 177
Silicotitanates, 43
Siting issues, 8, 18, 118, 124, 504
reactors, 142
repositories, 101, 315
uranium processing, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141
Sludges, 17, 32, 39, 89, 92, 180
Sludge washing, 9-10, 32, 92, 93, 94-95, 98, 191, 194
Slurry fuels, 28, 29, 40, 46
Sodium carbonate, 40
Sodium nitrate, 40, 89, 98
Sodium nitrite, 40, 89, 98
Sodium void coefficient, 28, 73
Soft donor complexants, 171
Soil contamination, 17
at Hanford site, 87, 90-92
Solidified defense waste (calcine), 16
in civilian repository, 18
Hanford tanks, 95, 96
Solvent extraction processes, 96.
See also PUREX (plutonium and uranium extraction) process;
TRUEX (transuranic extraction) processes
OCR for page 569
Nuclear Wastes: Technologies for Separations and Transmutation
South Africa
proliferation concerns, 105, 362, 363
uranium enrichment, 105, 357
South Korea
relations with North Korea, 364, 365n
S&T activities, 450
Soviet Union, see Russia and former Soviet bloc
Spent fuel (commercial LWR), 1, 11, 32-33, 39
energy recovery from, 2, 11, 18, 61-70
in geologic repositories, 1-2, 14, 15-16, 18, 22
government custody, 18, 119
research activities, 125-126
retrieval, 2, 10, 18
separations technology, 2, 3, 29-31, 39, 40, 43, 47
toxicity from ingestion, 23, 24
TRU content, 2, 15-16
see also Actinides;
Fission products;
Once-through fuel cycle;
Reprocessing
SPIN program, 448
Spontaneous fission (SF), 21
Stainless steel cladding, 147
Standards, see Regulations and standards
State regulations, 118, 119, 124-125
Steam generators, 217
Stereospecific extractants, 169
S&T integrated systems, see Integrated S&T systems
Storage, see Monitored retrievable storage; Pool storage; Reactor site storage; Repositories (geologic); Retrievable storage; Tank storage
Strontium (Sr), 24, 33, 335
decay heat, 11, 23, 24, 32, 39, 323, 326
in defense wastes, 16, 87, 89, 95, 98
separation and extraction, 40, 42, 43
storage and disposal, 47, 326, 342
transmutation, 50
Subcritical reactor assemblies, 13, 28-29, 56, 57, 85
Subnational groups, 107
Supercritical fluid extraction, 172
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986, 19
Surface storage and disposal, 124, 144, 388
Class C and LLW waste, 28, 44, 47, 326
TRU waste, 17, 28
Sweden
repository characterization, 315
reprocessing activities, 33n, 451
Switzerland, 451
T
Tails and tailings, 26-27, 137, 386
TALSPEAK process, 169-170, 447
Tank storage, 11, 16-17
Savannah River site, 193-199
see also Hanford, Washington, site, waste tanks
Targets and target nuclides, 16, 21, 24, 25, 28-29, 37, 44, 45, 73 , 120
in ATW system, 28-29, 46, 56, 246-247, 266-267, 280
minor actinide, 306-307, 396
in Phoenix accelerator, 398
in separations processes, 37, 43
TBP, see Tributyl phosphate
Technetium (Tc), 38, 39, 40
groundwater transport, 1, 3, 23, 26, 33, 72, 329, 332
packaging and waste forms, 24, 25, 31, 81, 82
repository risk, 23-25, 33, 330, 331, 332
separation, 30, 40, 42, 44, 178-180
transmutation, 2, 3, 14, 24, 25, 31, 50, 72, 81
"Technical Bases for Yucca Mountain Standards,"; 16, 26, 34, 328
Technical issues
in early repository studies, 14
separations, 30-31, 39-40
in S&T considerations, 12-13
Tellurium, 47
Temperature, see Decay heat and radioactivity
Temporary storage, see Monitored retrievable storage; Pool storage; Reactor site storage; Retrievable storage
Terrorism, 106, 107, 365
Thermal load, see Decay heat and radioactivity
Thermal reactors, 2, 3, 26, 56, 100.
See also Accelerator transmutation of waste (ATW);
LWR transmutation technology
Thermal-to-electrical efficiencies, 53, 81
ATW, 81, 271-273
Thorium (Th), 26, 27, 388, 393
THORP reprocessing plant, 113, 115, 117, 369, 416, 418, 427
Time scales and requirements
development
ALMR, 5, 75, 84
ATW, 6, 75, 76, 85
LWR transmuters, 5, 75, 84
repository risk, 23, 31, 33
OCR for page 570
Nuclear Wastes: Technologies for Separations and Transmutation
S&T operations, 6, 13, 77-81, 82, 82-83, 119, 120
ALMR, 83, 209, 463-464
ATW, 83, 282-284
LWR, 83
Titanates, 43
Toxicity index, 22-23
actinides, 25
Trade, see Imports and exports
Tramex in high nitrate solutions, 170
Transmutation technology, 4-5, 7-8, 18, 22, 49-58, 123
actinides, 3, 26, 348
alternative scenarios, 60-72, 78-81
deployment, 53, 77-82
engineering and materials issues, 53-54, 74
facilities, 120
and Hanford tank wastes, 10, 16-17, 32, 39, 97, 98
health impacts, 3, 22, 109-110, 111
process losses, 71, 83-84
radiation dose reduction, 3, 22, 110-111, 341-344
research and development, 12-13, 54, 74-77, 84-85, 448
safety issues, 53, 72-74, 385, 391
separations requirements and goals, 44-48
thermal and electrical efficiencies, 53, 81
and uranium tails and tailings, 27
waste reductions, 2, 82
see also Accelerator transmutation of waste (ATW);
Actinide burning;
Advanced liquid metal reactor (ALMR);
CURE (Clean Use of Reactor Energy) study;
Integrated S&T systems;
LWR transmutation technology;
Particle-bed reactor (PBR);
Phoenix accelerator
Transportation issues, 102-103, 104
ALMR, 375, 378
ATW, 376, 377
health risks, 102, 109, 110
Transport processes, 177-178
Transuranics (TRU)
decay heat, 32, 100
in defense waste, 9, 15, 16, 17
Hanford site, 17, 89, 97
and groundwater releases, 33, 81, 334-335
human intrusion risks, 31, 34, 82, 99, 100, 320
production, 2, 51
in reactor spent fuel, 2, 15-16, 28
repository risk, 16
separations, 30, 40, 42, 45, 99
transmutation, 2, 4-5, 14, 50-51, 58-71, 82-84
ALMR, 2, 4-5, 14, 28, 61-66, 71, 82, 83, 84-85, 207-209
ATW, 2, 5, 66-68, 71, 82, 83, 85
constant power scenarios, 61-64, 65, 66-71, 83
declining power scenario, 64-66, 68, 69, 70-71, 83
LWR methods, 2, 5, 27, 30, 68-70, 71, 82, 83, 84, 89, 225-228
process losses, 71, 83-84
reductions in inventory, 7-8, 52, 53, 58-71, 82, 83, 100
uranium ore requirements, 84
Transuranic (TRU) ratio, time constant, 71
Treaties, see Abrogation of treaties; Bilateral agreements; Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty
Tributyl phosphate (TBP), 38, 40, 41, 42, 89, 151
TRUEX (transuranic extraction) processes, 3, 30, 40, 42, 47
CMPO extractant, 29, 42, 448
safety issues, 391
Tuff, 33, 34, 315, 331, 339, 340, 346, 347, 506
Tungsten targets, 28
U
Ultrafiltration, 173
Underground tanks, see Tank storage
Unit costs, 115-116, 117, 431, 443, 444
United Kingdom
fast reactor problems, 389, 398
nuclear weapons program, 104
reprocessing activity, 29, 37, 40, 41, 167, 362, 451
S&T activities, 451-452, 454
THORP reprocessing plant, 113, 115, 117, 369, 416, 418, 427
United Nations Security Council, 105, 351, 366
Unsaturated repositories, 26, 34, 100, 321, 329, 331
UP3 reprocessing complex, 113, 115, 117, 369, 416, 418-419
Uranium characteristics, 21, 25-26
toxicity, 25, 26
Uranium dioxide (UO2), 3, 21, 22, 140
Uranium enrichment, 28, 31, 38, 136, 139, 415
health risks, 109, 110, 139
proliferation concerns, 105, 106, 361-363, 371-372
regulation, 121-122
tails and depleted uranium, 27, 386
OCR for page 571
Nuclear Wastes: Technologies for Separations and Transmutation
Uranium hexafluoride (UF6), 27, 38, 44, 109, 110, 138, 148
Uranium mining and milling, 26-27, 137, 362, 415
health and safety issues, 3, 26-27, 74, 108, 109, 110, 137, 391, 392
occupational health and safety, 74, 109, 110
radiation exposure, 3, 27, 386
regulation, 121, 124
Uranium recovery and reprocessing, 31, 333-334
economics, 118, 119
enrichment tails, 27
recycling, 2, 11, 27, 31
separation methods, 14, 38, 39, 41, 43, 44
see also PUREX (plutonium and uranium extraction) process
Uranium waste content, 27, 33n
Hanford tanks, 17, 89, 91, 92, 95
U.S. Enrichment Corporation, 121
U.S. government, see Defense production wastes; Department of Energy; Environmental Protection Agency; Nuclear Regulatory Commission; Policy issues
Utility financing, 114, 115, 117, 120, 429-430
power plants, 118
V
Vitrification (glass matrices), 2, 16, 507
of Hanford tank waste, 19, 93, 94, 95, 96, 98, 191-192
of PUREX process wastes, 31
Savannah River facility, 16, 192, 193, 196-197
Volatility processes, 38, 44, 46, 47, 152-153, 174-175, 180
Volcanic activity, 26, 33
W
Washington State Department of Ecology, 18-19
Washington State Hazardous Waste Management Act, 19
Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP), 14-15, 99, 119
and TRU wastes, 17
Waste isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP), EPA standards, 15, 17, 99
Wastes, see Defense production wastes; Fission products; Packaging and waste forms; Process losses; Solidified defense waste; Spent fuel (commercial LWR); Transuranics (TRU)
Water, see Groundwater dissolution and migration; Infiltration
Weapons, see Defense production wastes; Proliferation issues
Westinghouse Hanford Co., 14, 49, 54, 96, 452
West Valley Fuel Reprocessing Plant, 16, 39, 118, 165, 199, 466
WIPP, see Waste Isolation Pilot Plant
WIPP Land Withdrawal Act (PL 102-579), 15, 17
X
Xenon, 400
Y
Y-12 Plant, 89
Yucca Mountain, Nevada, site, 1, 15-16, 119, 315-316, 336n
carbon-14 releases, 26, 33n, 34, 99-100, 101
decay heat and thermal design, 8, 31, 32, 58, 100, 101, 317, 328, 467
EPA standards, 15, 16, 26, 34, 83n, 101, 124, 318
human intrusion scenarios, 16, 34
waste package performance, 32-33
Z
Zeolites, 43, 95, 199
Zirconium alloy (Zircaloy) cladding, 34, 45, 83, 89, 141, 147
Zirconium phosphate, 38
Representative terms from entire chapter:
safety issues
