Index
A
Accredition
ANSI role, 4, 35, 40, 60-61, 159-160
in conformity assessment system, 17, 68, 80
of consortia-developed standards, 39
criteria, 81
European Union-U.S. negotiations, 132-133
government recognition, 81, 97-99
industry cooperation in, 81
international trends, 118
for ISO 9000 quality system registrars, 81
laboratory, 51, 54, 80-87, 96, 118-119, 132-133
National Conformity Assessment System Recognition for, 2-3, 155, 156
number of programs, 81
professional certification, 28
recommendations, 2-3, 4, 155-157, 159-160
role of, 80-81
standardization of criteria, 3, 5, 156-157
system redundancy, 87, 96-97, 154
Agriculture, Department of, 16, 51, 76, 122-123
American Association for Laboratory Accreditation, 87
American Council of Independent Laboratories, 72, 74
American Dental Association, 75
American Gas Association, 36, 70, 74
American National Standards Institute, 73
evolution, 39
government relations, 45-46
international activities, 46, 119, 178
membership, 39
in public-private standardization effort, 59-60
publishing activity, 40-44
recommendations for, 4, 159-160
role of, 23-24, 35, 39, 40, 60-61, 179
standards development procedures, 33-34, 45
structure, 39-40
American Society for Testing and Materials, 34, 38, 47, 55-56, 96
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 28, 29, 37, 47, 75
American Society of Mechanical Engineers v. Hydrolevel Corporation , 35
Anticipatory standards, 44
Antitrust law, 35
Asbestos testing, 87
Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum
importance of, 117
mutual recognition agreements, 134-140, 147, 161
trade opportunities, 4-5
Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation, 38, 47
Audit of production, 16
certification in, 76
international standards development, 145, 146
B
Battery sizes, 11
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, 28, 29, 37, 74-75
Building codes, 16, 39, 51, 75
Building Officials and Code Administrators International, 75
C
Canvass method, 42-44
Certification
in conformity assessment system, 17, 66
European Union-U.S. agreements, 130-132
function, 72-73
government programs, 51, 75-77
intensity of, 73
international harmonization, 106, 118-119
opportunities for improvement, 76-77
organizations for, 36
private-sector programs, 73-75
revenue, 73
testing and, 73-74
Certification mark, 17, 73, 207
Commerce, Department of, 10, 16, 51, 123
Commercial transactions
differentiation vs. standardization, 15
quality system registration in, 77
role of conformity assessment, 17, 66, 68-70
role of standards, 11, 14-15, 19
Communications and information technology industry, 31-32, 181-183
challenges to consensus standardization, 44-45
federal standards development, 51
international standardization, 46, 47
role of compatibility standards, 15, 18
Compatibility standards, 18
challenges to development, 44-45
definition, 205
incentives for adoption, 15, 31-32
Competition
in development of de facto standards, 24, 31-32
global, 1-2
standards development and, 14-15
Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturers Association, 34, 37-38
Conformity assessment
accreditation services in, 17, 68, 80
Asian-U.S. mutual recognition, 137-140
certification system, 72-77
current status, 2, 99, 153-154
European Union mechanisms, 129-130
evolution of U.S. system, 65-66
framework, 68-70
independent laboratory testing services in, 71-72
international trade and, 106
as international trade barrier, 109-111, 120-121
international trends, 118-119
NIST role, 54
private-sector organizations for, 2-3, 70, 155
quality system registration in, 17, 77, 78, 80
recognition in, 97-99
state government role in, 51
trade barriers in U.S. system, 133-134
See also Mutual recognition agreements;
Standards and conformity assessment system
Construction materials standards, 75
Corporation for Open Systems, 39
Cost savings
as benefit of standards, 11, 14, 30
conformity assessment reform for, 154, 155
in consensus standards development process, 33
in coordination of accreditation activities, 96-97
in coordination of certification programs, 76-77
estimating role of standards in, 19
in federal standards development, 55
in federal use of consensus standards, 55-56
as goal of government standards, 20
in quality system registration programs, 78, 79
D
Data gathering and analysis
government certification programs, 76
independent laboratory testing trends, 71-72
international trade practices, 109-111, 147
OMB circular A-119 reporting requirements, 57
recommendations for, 6-7, 163-164
De facto standards
definition, 19, 24, 29, 61, 205
Defense, Department of
number of standards, 19, 26, 49
procurement standards, 55, 176-177
Qualified Manufacturers List, 78-79
Qualified Products List, 76
quality system registration, 78-79, 80
trends in standard development, 26, 57
Documentation
international assistance programs, 146-147
quality assurance, 78
Drinking water quality, 74
E
Economies of scale, 14, 15, 30, 105, 106
Employment rate, international trade and, 20, 105
Engineering services, 72
Environmental Protection Agency, 49-51, 96
Environmental standards, 10, 16-17, 208
conformity assessment framework for, 69
government certification programs, 76
international efforts, 164
ETL Testing Laboratories, 74
European Commission for Electrotechnical Standardization, 127-129
European Commission for Standardization, 127-129
European Telecommunications Standards Institute, 127-129
European Union
mutual recognition agreement negotiations, 130-134, 147, 160-161
quality system registration trends, 77, 80
standards and conformity assessment mechanisms, 32, 127-130, 171-172, 175-176
trade barriers in, 4, 107, 109, 111-112, 118, 126-127, 130, 160
F
Factory Mutual Research Corporation, 74
Fastener Quality Act, 97, 98, 156
Federal Aviation Administration, 76
Federal Communications Commission, 51, 57, 87
Federal government
accreditation programs, 81
certification programs, 75-77
conformity assessment role, 155, 177-181
consumption of testing services, 72
in European standards development, 32
export promotion activities, 140
funding for voluntary standards organizations, 60
international trade policymaking apparatus, 121-124
multiple accreditations, 87, 96
number of standards in, 19, 26, 27
obsolete standards, 29
process standards enforcement, 16
protection of public welfare, 16
public-private cooperation for standards development, 57-60, 61, 157-159
quality system registration, 78-80
recognition of accreditation services, 97-99
role of standards in, 20
sources of standards in, 26, 49-51
standards development process, 55
standards development trends, 57
use of private-sector standards, 25, 48-49, 54-57, 157-158
See also Regulatory control
Federal Trade Commission, 68
Fire fighting technology, 30, 38-39
Food and Drug Administration, 179-180
Food products
barriers to international trade, 109
safety, 76
France, 32
G
GATT. See General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
compliance in developing countries, 141
conformity assessment agreements, 118-119
coverage of nongovernmental organizations, 119-120
dispute resolution, 109, 120-121, 172-173
recommendations for, 6, 7, 162, 164
responsibilities of signatories, 54
scope and coverage, 113, 117-118
trade barrier agreements, 107, 171, 172
Uruguay Round Agreements, 4, 20-21, 112-113, 160
U.S. policy goals, 21, 147-148
U.S. representation, 122
General Services Administration, 49, 80
Germany, 32
Great Britain, 32
Growth hormone regulation, 109
H
Health and safety standards
conformity assessment framework for, 69-70
drinking water treatment, 74
government certification programs, 76
government production, 49
historical development, 29-30
role of government, 20
voluntary consensus development, 56-57
Health care industry, 38
I
Indonesia, 141-144
Industry standards, 24
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 34, 36, 40
Interagency Committee on Standards Policy, 53, 57, 158
International Conference of Building Officials, 75
International Electrotechnical Commission, 36, 45, 46-47, 48
International Organization for Standardization, 45
9000 quality system standards, 10, 16, 54, 57, 77-80, 81, 143, 164
role of, 48
testing services, 72
International standardization
benefits of, 106
conformity assessment acceptance, 97-98
GATT agreements, 112-113, 117-118
organizations for, 46
process, 46
public-private cooperation for, 60, 179-180
quality system registration, 77-78, 80
recognition of nongovernmental organizations, 119-120, 173
technical assistance for, 5-6, 21, 104, 141, 143-147, 162
U.S. participation in, 46-47, 170-171
U.S. policy goals, 103-104
International Telecommunications Union, 46, 49
International trade
barriers in U.S. export markets, 108-112
benefits, 169-171
cost of trade barriers, 107-108
dispute resolution mechanisms, 120-121
GATT agreements, 112-113, 117-121
Indonesian policy development, 141-144
intellectual property rights and, 151 n.57
mutual recognition agreements in, 126
ongoing analytical activities, 6-7, 163-164
retaliatory actions, 5, 124-125, 161
role of standards and conformity assessment in, 1-2, 18, 20, 47, 105, 106
Section 301 provisions, 124-125, 148
standards and conformity assessment as barriers to, 108, 120-121, 171-174
U.S. competitiveness in, 1-2
U.S. domestic economy and, 20, 103, 104-105, 160
U.S. export promotion, 140-141
U.S. policy formation process, 121-124
U.S. policy goals, 103-104, 112, 147-148, 160
wage rates and, 170
See also General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
Internet, 15
ISO. See International Organization for Standardization
ISONET, 54
J
Japan, 125
Joint Technical Committee on Information Technology, 36, 45
Just-in-time manufacturing, 69
L
Laboratory accreditation, 51, 80-87
European Union-U.S. negotiations, 132-133
international agreements, 118-119
multiple accreditation, 96
Latin America, 134-137
Legal issues, 35
basis for retaliatory trade action, 124-125
delay of regulatory standards development, 56
manufacturers' declaration of conformity, 68
truth in advertising, 68
voluntary consensus safety standards, 56
Lock-in effects, 44-45
M
Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award, 10, 16, 78, 101 n.51
Mandatory standards
voluntary consensus standards overlap, 25, 48-49, 54-57
Manufacturer's declaration of conformity
application, 68-69
in conformity assessment system, 17, 66
Manufacturing Automation Protocol user group, 39
Manufacturing sector
conformity assessment needs, 68-69
historical development of standards, 30
independent third-party assessment, 70, 72
process standards, 15-16
rationale for consensus standardization, 30-33
Market development
foreign acceptance of U.S. conformity assessment, 97-98
in Indonesia, 141-144
U.S. export promotion policy, 140-144
Memorandum of understanding, 59-60
MET Electrical Testing Company, 74
Model T, 15
MS-DOS operating system, 31, 32
Multinational firms, 105
Mutual recognition agreements
definition, 207
European Union negotiations, 130-134, 147, 160-161
priority regions, 134-140, 147, 161
N
National Aerospace and Defense Contractors Accreditation Program, 81
National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors, 74
National Center for Standards and Certification Information, 54
National Conference on Weights and Measures, 54, 75
National Conformity Assessment System Recognition, 2-3, 155, 156
National Economic Council, 122
National Electrical Code, 25, 39, 40
National Fire Prevention Association, 25, 38-39, 40
National Highway and Traffic Safety Administration, 16, 76
National Institute of Standards and Technology, 10, 45
data collection and management, 6-7, 54, 163-164
in dissemination of standards and conformity assessment, 6, 163
international technical assistance efforts, 5-6, 144-147, 162
National Conference on Weights and Measures, 75
recognition programs, 97-98
recommendations for, 2-4, 5-7, 155-156, 157, 158-159, 162, 163-164
United States Trade Representative and, 54, 123
in voluntary consensus standardization, 52-54
National Standards Systems Network, 45
National Trade Data Bank, 123
National Trade Estimate Report on Foreign Trade Barriers, 108-109
National Voluntary Conformity Assessment System Evaluation, 97-98, 132-133, 156
National Volunteer Laboratory Accreditation Program, 81-87, 96, 178
Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratory program, 96, 157
Naval Facilities Engineering Command, 55-56
Network compatibility standards, 31-32
North American Free Trade Agreement, 126, 170
Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 79
O
Obsolete standards, 28-29
Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 16, 72, 81, 157
OMB Circular A-119
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 108
Organizations for standards development
consortia for, 36, 39, 45, 182-183
government funding, 60
industry associations, 37-38
international, 46-47
membership organizations, 38-39
number of standards produced by, 26
private U.S., number of, 33, 36
professional societies for, 36-37
structure and process, 33-35, 60-61
voluntary consensus-building, 23
See also specific organizations
P
Patents
certification marks, 73
development of consensus standards and, 32-33
international agreements, 151 n.57
technology diffusion and, 14
Performance standards
definition, 206
in OMB Circular A-119, 55
Pharmaceutical industry, 69
Private sector
accreditation programs, 81, 87
certification programs, 73-75
in conformity assessment, recommendations for, 2-3, 4, 155, 158-160
consumption of independent testing services, 72
economic rationale for consensus standardization, 30-33
government recognition of accreditation services, 97-99
government standards development in, 16
international recognition of accreditation services, 119-120, 173
in international technical assistance, 5-6, 146, 162
number of standards in, 19, 26-28
obsolete standards, 29
public-private cooperation in standards development, 57-60, 61, 157 -159, 178-179
standards development mechanisms, 23-24, 25-26
in U.S. international trade policy formulation, 124
See also Voluntary consensus standards
Process management, 15-16
Process-oriented regulations, 16
Procurement
consensus standards for, 55-56
Defense Department, 55, 176-177
federal certification programs for, 76
Product-oriented regulations, 16
Professional certification, 28
Q
Quality assurance
definition, 208
process standards, 16
role of, 77
Quality system registration
accreditation, 80-81
application, 78-79
in conformity assessment system, 17, 77, 78, 80
European-U.S. negotiations, 132-133
problems, 79-80
registration function, 78
R
Recognition
in conformity assessment system, 68, 97
current activities, 97-98
European-U.S. negotiations, 132-133
international trade and, 97-98
National Conformity Assessment System Recognition program, 2-3, 155 -156
Reference standards, 51
Regulatory control
accreditation services in, 81
conformity assessment in, 17
independent testing services in, 72
mandatory standards in, 25
role of, 16
sources of standards for, 16
standards development process, 56
third-party conformity assessment in, 69-70
U.S. competitiveness and, 1, 2
Retaliatory action
indications for, 134
U.S. law, 124-125
S
Safety. See Health and safety standards
Saudi Arabia, 144-147
Self-certification, 73
Society of Automotive Engineers, 10, 30, 32
Southern Building Code Congress International, 75
Standards
in certification vs. testing, 73
evaluation of effectiveness of, 10-11, 18-19
excess of, 15
obsolete, 28-29
for professional certification, 28
quality system registration and, 78
variability in influence of, 28
Standards and conformity assessment system
data collection and analysis, 54
European mechanisms, 32, 127-130, 171-172, 175-176
evaluation criteria, 18-19, 29
GATT agreements, 112-113, 117-121
in Indonesia, 141-144
international trade and, 20-21, 105, 147, 153
international trends, 174-175
as non-tariff trade barrier, 108, 120-121, 171-174
role in government, 20
role of government, 179-181
U.S. economic performance and, 1-2
See also Conformity assessment;
Standards;
Standards development
Standards development
accreditation, 40
canvass method, 42-44
conformity assessment and, 17, 65
current inadequacies, 3, 157-158
economic influence, 18-19
federal government in, 55
historical evolution, 29-30
international forums for, 46-47
international technical assistance, 5-6, 21, 104, 141, 143-147, 162
market forces in, 30-33
mechanisms, 9-10, 23-26, 60-61
opportunities for improvement, 61
public-private cooperation, 3-4, 57-60, 61, 157-160
technology for, 45
See also Organizations for standards development
State, Department of, 123
State and local government
accreditation programs, 81
consumption of testing services, 72
multiple accreditations, 87, 96, 98-99, 154
number of standards, 29
product certification, 75
for protection of public welfare, 16-17
recommendations for, 3, 156-157
standards development, 25, 51-52
Strategic standardization management, 14
T
Technical advisory groups, 36, 46
Technology diffusion
challenges to standardization, 44-45
role of standards in, 11-14
Telecommunications industry, 15, 31, 46, 47, 51, 181-182
Testing
accreditation, 80-81
certification and, 73-74
in conformity assessment system, 17, 66
consumers of services, 72
definition, 72
European-U.S. agreements, 130-132
industry revenue, 118
international harmonization, 106, 118-119
national trends, 71-72
organizations for, 36
potential savings in reform of, 154-155
Timeline
European Union mutual recognition agreement, 161-162
private-sector conformity assessment, 3, 155, 156
standardization of accreditation criteria, 3, 156, 157
Total quality management, 78
Trade Act of 1974, 5, 122, 124-125, 161
Treasury, Department of, 123
Truth in advertising, 68
Typewriter keyboard, 24
U
Underwriters Laboratories, 17, 36, 66, 70, 74
United States
consensus standards development in, 32, 33
economic performance, 1-2
evolution of conformity assessment system, 65-66
evolution of standards development, 29-30
export promotion policy, 140-144
international standardization activities, 46-47
international technical assistance efforts, 5-6, 21, 104, 141, 143 -147, 162
international trade and domestic economy, 20, 103, 104-105, 133-134, 160, 169-171
priority trading partners, 134-140
standards and conformity assessment system, evaluation of, 18-19
trade barriers in, 133-134
trade barriers to, 108-112
trade policy goals, 147-148
trade policy mechanisms, 121-124
See also Federal government;
State and local government
United States Testing Company, 74
United States Trade Representative
interagency coordination, 123-124
organizational structure, 122-123
private-sector advisory mechanisms, 124
recommendations for, 5, 6-7, 160, 161, 163, 164
responsibility and authority, 121-122
Section 301 authority, 5, 124-125, 161
V
Voluntary consensus standards
ANSI role, 39
challenges to development, 44-45
development processes, 33-35
due process in development of, 35, 44, 45
economic rationale, 30-33
federal use of, 54-57, 157-158
influence of, 28
mandatory standards overlap, 9-10, 25, 48-49
NIST in development of, 52-54
number of, 26
public-private cooperation in, 57-60, 61
role of consensus in, 34
for safety, 56-57
technology development and response time of, 44-45
W
Weights and measures, 51, 75, 157
Whitney, Eli, 14
Wood products, 125
World Trade Organization, 7, 21, 103, 113, 164
standing of nongovernmental organizations, 119-120
