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Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers (1995)

Chapter: APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS

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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Page 100
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Page 101
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Page 122
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Page 123
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Page 124
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Page 125
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Page 126
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Page 128
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Page 133
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX B: STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS." Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, and National Academy of Engineering. 1995. Reshaping the Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4935.
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STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 97 B STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS Michael McGeary Study Director, Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy CONTENTS OVERVIEW 100 THE GRADUATE STUDENTS 100 Tables: B-1 Distribution of Science and Engineering Graduate Students, by Field, 1992 101 B-2 Distribution of US and Non-US Students, by Broad Field, 1992 102 B-3 Female Science and Engineering Graduate Students, by Broad Field, 1992 103 B-4 Members of Underrepresented Minorities, by Broad Field, 1992 104 B-5 Increase in Full-Time Graduate Enrollment, by Field and Citizenship, 1982–1992 105 B-6 Trends in First-Year and Beyond-First-Year Full-Time Enrollments in Doctorate-Granting 106 Institutions, 1982–1992 B-7 Sources of Major Support for Full-Time Science and Engineering Graduate Students in All 107 Institutions, by Field, 1992 B-8 Sources of Major Support for Full-Time Science and Engineering Graduate Students, 1982 108 and 1992 B-9 Federal Sources of Support for Full-Time Science and Engineering Graduate Students in All 109 Institutions, by Field and Agency, 1992

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 98 B-10 Mechanisms of Major Support for Full-Time Science and Engineering Graduate Students in 110 Doctorate-Granting Institutions, 1991 B-11 Science and Engineering Graduate Students in Master's Degree Institutions and Doctorate 111 Institutions, by Enrollment Status and Field, 1992 THE INSTITUTIONS 112 Tables: B-12 Number of Academic Institutions with Science and Engineering Programs, by Highest Degree 112 Level, 1991 B-13 Concentration of Science and Engineering Degree Awards by Type of Institution, 1991 113 B-14 Concentration of 80 Percent of Science and Engineering PhD Production in the 105 Research 114 Universities, by Field, 1991 B-15 Number of Institutions by Highest Degree Level Since 1961, by Decade 114 SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING MASTER'S DEGREES 115 Tables: B-16 Science and Engineering Master's Degrees, Awarded by Field, 1966–1991 115 B-17 Women as Percentage of Science and Engineering Master's Degree Recipients, by Field, 1991 116 B-18 Members of Underrepresented Minorities as Percentage of Science and Engineering Master's 117 Degree Recipients, by Field, 1977–1991 B-19 Science and Engineering Master's Degrees Earned by Students Who Were Not US Citizens, 118 by Field, 1977, 1985, and 1991 SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING DOCTORAL DEGREES 119 Tables: B-20 Science and Engineering Doctorates Awarded, by Field, 1983–1993 119 B-21 Increases in Number of Science and Engineering Doctorates Awarded, by Field, 1988–1993 120 B-22 Women as a Percentage of Science and Engineering Doctorate Recipients, by Field, 1983– 121 1993 B-23 Science and Engineering Doctorates Awarded to Women, by Field, 1983 and 1993 122 B-24 Members of Underrepresented Minorities as a Percentage of Science and Engineering 123 Doctorate Recipients, by Field, 1983, 1988, and 1993

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 99 B-25 Share of Science and Engineering Doctorates Earned by Students Who Were Not US 124 Citizens, by Field, 1983 and 1993 B-26 Increase in Science and Engineering Doctorates Awarded to Non-US Citizens with 125 Temporary Visas, by Field, 1983 and 1993 B-27 Science and Engineering Doctorates Awarded to Non-US Citizens with Temporary Visas, by 126 Field, 1983 and 1993 B-28 Region and Country of Origin of Foreign Citizens with Temporary Visas Earning Science and 127 Engineering PhDs, 1983 and 1993 B-29 Median Total Time-to-Degree for Doctorate Recipients, 1962–1993 128 B-30 Primary Sources of Support for Science and Engineering Doctorate Recipients, by Broad 131 Field, 1993 POSTDOCTORATE EMPLOYMENT PLANS 131 Table: B-31 Science and Engineering PhD Recipients with Definite Postgraduation Commitments in the 132 United States, by Field and Type of Employer, 1970–1991 POSTDOCTORAL STUDY TRENDS 133 Tables: B-32 Postdoctoral Study Plans of Recipients of Science and Engineering Doctorates from US 133 Universities, 1985–1992 B-33 Postdoctoral Study Plans of Recipients of Science and Engineering Doctorates from US 133 Universities, by Field, 1992 B-34 Science and Engineering Postdoctoral Appointees in Doctorate-Granting Institutions, by 134 Field, 1982–1992 B-35 Trends in Net Growth of Science and Engineering Postdoctoral Appointee Positions in 135 Doctorate-Granting Institutions, by Field, 1982 and 1992 B-36 Appointments of Postdoctoral Scientists and Engineers Who Were Not US Citizens in 136 Doctorate-Granting Institutions, by Field, 1982 and 1992 B-37 Federally Supported Science and Engineering Postdoctoral Appointees in Doctorate-Granting 137 Institutions, by Field, 1982 and 1992 B-38 Sources of Support for Science and Engineering Postdoctoral Appointees in Doctorate- 138 Granting Institutions, by Field, 1992

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 100 OVERVIEW About 1,500 institutions of higher learning in the United States have programs leading to degrees in science and engineering. Of those, nearly 300 offer doctoral-degree programs in science and engineering. They also offer master's degrees, and more than 400 nondoctoral academic institutions offer master's-degree programs in science and engineering. In 1992, about 430,000 graduate students were in science and engineering programs; 87% of them were at the 300 doctorate-granting institutions. In 1992, about 80,000 master's degrees and 25,000 doctoral degrees were earned in science and engineering fields. About one-fourth of the doctorates were awarded in each broad field of science and engineering: physical/ mathematical sciences, life sciences, social sciences, and engineering. The median time from the bachelor's degree to the PhD was 9.2 years. More than half of the master's degrees and 90% of the PhDs are awarded by the 150 universities that receive 90% of federal academic R&D funding. About 5% of all science and engineering doctorate recipients in 1993 (14% of life-sciences PhDs) were supported by federal fellowships and traineeships. Another 61 % (including 78% of physical scientists and 69% of engineers) received external support, primarily research assistantships and teaching assistantships. Many of the research assistantships were funded by federal grants. About one-quarter of the science and engineering doctoral recipients (including one-half the social scientists) were self-supporting (including federally guaranteed loans). More than one-third more doctorates in science and engineering were awarded in 1993 than in 1983. Seven- tenths of the net increase in doctorate awards went to foreign citizens with temporary visas, and most of the remaining increase was to US women. In 1993, nearly 30% of the doctorates were earned by women, up from about 25% in 1983. In 1992, 5.7% of PhDs were earned by members of underrepresented minorities in 1992, up from 4.1% in 1983; most of the increase was earned by Hispanics. Foreign citizens with temporary visas greatly increased their share of US doctorates, earning 18.5% in 1983 and 32% in 1993; almost all the net increase was accounted for by citizens of Asian countries. Nearly half of the engineering PhDs went to foreign citizens with temporary visas. THE GRADUATE STUDENTS In 1992, the National Science Foundation (NSF) estimated that about 431,600 students were enrolled in graduate science and engineering degree programs (NSF, 1994a: Table 1). Most (87%) were enrolled in doctorate-granting institutions, a proportion that has varied only slightly since the NSF survey began in 1975. Most (67%) were full-time students (this proportion was 72% in doctorate-granting institutions).

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 101 It is not possible to tell which of these graduate students were enrolled in master's degree programs and which in doctoral programs, although many PhD recipients have master's degrees (72% in 1993) (NRC, 1995: Appendix Table A-3). Table B-1, a comparison of the distribution of science and engineering graduate students among fields by type of institution and enrollment status shows that life-sciences graduate students were somewhat more likely than science and engineering graduate students overall to be at doctorate institutions and to be enrolled full-time. Social sciences and behavioral-science graduate students had the opposite pattern: they were somewhat more likely to be part-time and at master's institutions. Engineering graduate students were slightly more likely to be at doctorate institutions but more likely to be enrolled part-time. TABLE B-1 Distribution of Science and Engineering Graduate Students, by Field, 1992 Field All Institutions, All Students Doctorate-Granting Institutions All Students Full-Time Students TOTAL 431,613 (100%) 374,781 (100%) 270,984 (100%) Physical/ mathematical sciences 106,548 (25.0%) 93,429 (25.2%) 69,053 (25.8%) Astronomy 869 869 840 Physics 14,264 13,734 12,432 Chemistry 19,904 18,799 16,611 Physical sciences n.e.c. 459 209 128 Mathematical sciences 20,375 17,890 13,889 Environmental sciences 15,609 13,964 10,567 Computer sciences 36,396 29,042 15,554 Life sciences 66,046 (15.3%) 61,114 (16.3%) 51,676 (19.1%) Agricultural sciences 11,609 10,891 8,907 Biological sciences 54,437 50,223 42,769 Social/behavioral sciences 139,644 (32.4%) 110,868 (29.6%) 77,464 (28.6%) Social sciences 85,824 73,170 50,272 Psychology 53,820 37,698 27,192 Engineering 118,047 (27.3%) 108,292 (28.9%) 71,823 (26.5%) SOURCE: Calculated from Table 1 in NSF, 1994a.

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 102 Non-US Citizens Nearly 110,000 (25.3%) science and engineering graduate students were not US citizens in 1992. About 93,000 of them were enrolled full-time. Their distribution among fields differed from that of US-citizen science and engineering graduate students. Table B-2 shows the distribution of full-time science and engineering graduate students by citizenship and broad field in 1992. Those who were not US citizens were more likely to be studying engineering or the physical sciences and less likely to be in life-science or social/behavioral-sciences programs. As a result, those who were not US citizens constituted relatively high proportions in some fields—46% of all full-time graduate students in engineering and 39% of those in the physical/mathematic sciences—but low proportions in other fields—27% of all full-time graduate students in the life sciences and 17% of those in the social/behavioral sciences or psychology. TABLE B-2 Distribution of US and Non-US Citizens, by Broad Field, 1992 Field Full-Time Science and Engineering Graduate Student, All Institutions US Citizen Non-US Citizen TOTAL 198,198 (100.0%) 92,795 (100.0%) Physical/ mathematical sciences 45,177 (22.8%) 28,983 (31.2%) Life sciences 39,146 (19.7%) 14,652 (15.8%) Social/behavioral sciences 73,661 (37.2%) 14,908 (16.1%) Engineering 40,214 (20.3%) 34,252 (36.9%) SOURCE: Calculated from Tables 13 and 14 in NSF, 1994a.

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 103 Female Graduate Students In 1992, more than 150,000 (35%) science and engineering graduate students were women (up from 25% in 1977). As Table B-3 shows, they were more likely to be enrolled in the life sciences or the social/behavioral sciences and less likely to be in the physical sciences or engineering. In fact, half of all female science and engineering graduate students were in social sciences and psychology programs. As a result, the majority (54%) of graduate students in the social/behavioral sciences were women, as were 44% of those in the life sciences. Only 15% of engineering graduate students and 27% of those in the natural (physical, environmental, mathematical, and computer) sciences were female. TABLE B-3 Female Science and Engineering Graduate Students, by Broad Field, 1992 Field Number Percentage Distribution Across Percentage of All Graduate Fields Students TOTAL 150,411 100.0 34.8 Physical/ mathematical sciences 28,719 19.1 26.6 Life sciences 29,223 19.4 44.2 Social/behavioral sciences 75,311 50.1 53.9 Engineering 17,158 11.4 14.5 SOURCE: Calculated from Table 8 in NSF, 1994a.

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 104 Members of Underrepresented Minorities Fewer than 29,000 (9%) of science and engineering graduate students who were US citizens were members of underrepresented minorities—black, Hispanic, or American Indian. Compared with all US-citizen graduate students, they were much more likely to be studying social/behavioral sciences (53 versus 37%) and substantially less likely to be in the life sciences (13% versus 20%). Members of underrepresented minorities constituted 13% of US citizens in the social/behavioral sciences and about 7% of those in the other broad fields (see Table B-4). TABLE B-4 Members of Underrepresented Minorities, by Broad Field, 1992 Field Number Percentage Distribution Across Fields Percentage of All US-Citizen Graduate Students TOTAL 28,866 100.0% 9.0 Physical/math sciences 4,917 17.0% 6.7 Life sciences 3,615 12.5% 7.2 Social/behavioral sciences 15,335 53.1% 12.6 Engineering 4,999 17.3% 6.5 SOURCE: Calculated from Table 2 in NSF, 1994a. Growth Trends in Full-Time Graduate Enrollment Since 1982 In 1992, there were nearly 291,000 full-time science and engineering graduate students, 30.6% more than in 1982. The growth by field is presented in the first column of Table B-5. Much of the net growth came from foreign citizens; as overall enrollment was increasing by almost 2% a year, foreign enrollment was growing by more than 5% a year (NSB, 1993:50). The second and third columns of Table B-5 compare the increases in full-time science and engineering graduate students who were foreign citizens with those who were US citizens in 1982–1992, by field. Enrollment increases were also driven by the increased participation of women—3% a year, compared with 1% among men, during the 1980s. There were absolute decreases in the number of male graduate students in the life, environmental, and social sciences and psychology (NSB, 1993:53).

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 105 TABLE B-5 Increases in Full-Time Graduate Enrollment, by Field and Citizenship, 1982– 1992 (percentages) Citizenship Field All Non-US US TOTAL +30.6 +68.1 +18.4 Physical/ mathematical sciences +33.7 +90.6 +12.2 Physical sciences +27.8 +83.9 +7.1 Mathematical sciences +35.5 +47.8 +28.6 Environmental sciences −2.5 +63.3 −13.6 Computer sciences +92.1 +170.3 +50.4 Life sciences +14.8 +97.6 −0.8 Agricultural sciences −6.2 +17.3 −14.1 Biological sciences +20.4 +136.3 +2.3 Social/behavioral sciences +26.2 +32.4 +25.1 Social sciences +22.1 +30.1 +19.8 Psychology +33.2 +53.9 +32.3 Engineering +48.2 +60.6 +39.6 SOURCES: Calculated from Tables 13 and 14 in NSF, 1994a for 1992; Table B-5 in NSF, 1993a for 1982. Growth in First-Year and Beyond-First-Year Enrollments, 1982–1992 The NSF survey of graduate students and postdoctorates in science and engineering fields began to collect information on the number of first-year full-time enrollments in 1982. The data indicate that first-year enrollments increased at a lower rate than total full-time enrollments until about 1989, after which they increased more rapidly for several years. During 1982–1992, first-year enrollments increased by 17% and beyond-first-year enrollments by 37% (Table B-6). It is difficult to interpret those data. Are the recent large increases in first-year enrollments the result of reports in the middle to late 1980s of impending shortfalls in the number of PhDs or the tendency of more college graduates to go to graduate school when economic conditions are poor? Also, how much of the higher rate of growth among beyond-first-year graduate students until recently was simply the manifestation of the steadily increasing degree requirements among science and engineering PhDs, and how much was due to graduate students' deliberately delaying completion of their degrees as short-term responses to poor job-market prospects?

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 106 TABLE B-6 Trends in First-Year and Beyond-First-Year Full-Time Enrollments in Doctorate-Granting Institutions, 1982–1992 Year First Year Beyond First Year 1982 70,351 152,419 1983 72,152 (2.6%) 157,786 (3.5%) 1984 70,604 (−1.8%) 160,986 (2.0%) 1985 71,395 (1.1%) 163,100 (1.3%) 1986 73,167 (2.5%) 169,941 (4.2%) 1987 71,255 (−2.6%) 176,265 (3.7%) 1988 70,930 (−0.5%) 180,036 (2.1%) 1989 74,478 (5.0%) 182,677 (1.5%) 1990 76,405 (2.6%) 189,355 (3.7%) 1991 81,140 (6.2%) 196,211 (3.6%) 1992 82,481 (1.7%) 208,512 (6.3%) SOURCES: Calculated from Tables B-34 and B-35 in NSF, 1992a for 1982; Tables B-24 and B-25 in NSF, 1993a for 1983–1994; unpublished NSF Tables for 1985–1992. Sources and Mechanisms of Financial Support In 1992, science and engineering graduate students were supported in a number of ways by a variety of sources. For each full-time student, the NSF survey asks for the “major” (i.e., largest) source of support (e.g., federal, institutional, and self) and the type (e.g., fellowship, and/or research assistantship). Table B-7 shows that the sources of support vary considerably from field to field. Although on the average 20% of full-time science and engineering graduate students received their major support from a federal source, this was the largest source of support for 32% of graduate students in biology and nearly 36% of graduate students in the physical sciences. Only 7% of graduate students in the social or behavioral sciences and 10% of those in the mathematical sciences were supported primarily by federal funds. Nearly two-thirds of mathematical scientists and half of those in the physical sciences received their major support from their institutions (mostly in the form of research and teaching assistantships), but institutional funds were also an important source of graduate support in the other disciplines —between 32 and 45%. “Own funds” (including, however, federally guaranteed loans) were the major source of support for large fractions of graduate students in some fields—46% of those in computer science and 40% of those in the social and behavioral sciences—but for relatively few in physics, astronomy, and chemistry (6%) or the biological sciences (13%). Only a few percent received foreign support (although those completing the

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 107 survey might not always have known whether those funding their own way—thus classified as self-supporting— were receiving foreign support). Finally, about 7% overall were receiving support from industry and domestic sources other than federal and institutional. About 11% of students in engineering and agricultural science were receiving such support. TABLE B-7 Sources of Major Support for Full-Time Science and Engineering Graduate Students in All Institutions, by Field, 1992 Field Total No. Federal Institutional Other US Foreign Self TOTAL 290,993 20.0% 41.3% 6.9% 2.1% 29.7% Physical/ mathematical sciences 74,160 25.0% 47.0% 5.8% 1.6% 20.6% Physical sciences 30,730 35.7% 50.0% 7.0% 1.1% 6.4% Mathematical sciences 14,663 10.2% 65.1% 2.4% 2.0% 20.3% Environmental sciences 11,150 30.9% 39.2% 7.1% 2.2% 20.6% Computer sciences 17,617 15.0% 31.7% 5.9% 1.8% 45.6% Life sciences 53,798 31.8% 43.4% 7.9% 2.3% 14.5% Agricultural sciences 9,280 21.1% 38.7% 11.5% 6.2% 22.5% Biological sciences 44,518 34.0% 44.4% 7.2% 1.5% 12.9% Social/behavioral sciences 88,569 7.0% 42.0% 3.5% 1.7% 45.7% Social sciences 54,183 6.3% 45.0% 3.7% 2.7% 42.3% Psychology 34,386 8.1% 37.4% 3.2% 0.2% 51.1% Engineering 74,466 22.1% 33.3% 11.4% 2.7% 30.5% SOURCE: Calculated from Table 11 in NSF, 1994a.

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 108 The pattern of sources of support has not changed much over the last 10 years, as seen in Table B-8; federal, institutional, and other US sources of support were up by several percentage points each, offsetting relative declines in foreign and own sources of support. TABLE B-8 Sources of Major Support for Full-Time Science and Engineering Graduate Students, 1982 and 1992 Year Total No. Federal Institutional Other US Foreign Self 1982 208,954 19.3% 41.5% 6.6% 4.0% 28.6% 1992 290,993 20.0% 41.3% 6.9% 2.1% 29.7% SOURCES: Calculated from Table C-18 in NSFa, 1992 for 1982; and Table 11 in NSF, 1994a for 1992. The sources of federal support for full-time science and engineering graduate students also varied by field (see Table B-9), although the pattern has not changed since 1982 (compare NSF, 1992: Table C-18). National Institutes of Health (NIH) NIH is the primary source of support for nearly 70% of federally supported graduate students in the biological sciences and also accounts for one-third (34%) of federally funded graduate students in psychology. Overall, NIH is the major source of support for more than one-fourth of the federally supported science and engineering graduate students. Other Health and Human Services (DHHS) agencies pick up a few percent more. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) The majority (55%) of federally supported agricultural- science students are funded by USDA. USDA is the primary supporter of few other graduate students (a little more than 5% of federally funded students). Department of Defense (DoD) Nearly half (45%) of those with major federal support in the computer sciences and more than one-fourth of those in the mathematical sciences are funded by DoD. Overall, DoD is the major source of support for 15% of federally funded graduate students. National Science Foundation (NSF) Almost one-third of the graduate students in physical sciences who receive their major support from federal sources are funded by NSF. Overall, NSF supports more than a one-fifth of the federally funded graduate students. Other Other federal agencies are the major source of support for 29% of federally supported graduate students, especially in the social (44%) and environmental (44%) sciences. The only fields that do not receive much support from other federal agencies are the biological (8%) and the computer (14%) sciences.

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 109 TABLE B-9 Federal Sources of Support for Full-Time Science and Engineering Graduate Students in All Institutions, by Field and Agency, 1992 Field Total No. DoD NIH Other HHS NSF USDA Federal Sources TOTAL 58,309 15.0% 25.6% 2.2% 22.7% 5.4% 29.1% Physical/ mathematical sciences 18,539 17.5% 12.1% 0.8% 34.2% 1.0% 34.4% Physical sciences 10,956 10.8% 18.6% 1.2% 32.9% 0.6% 35.9% Mathematical sciences 1,499 25.8% 4.1% 0.5% 30.5% 1.7% 37.6% Environmental sciences 3,449 13.7% 1.2% 0.2% 38.4% 2.6% 43.9% Computer sciences 2,635 45.3% 3.7% 0.2% 36.3% 0.2% 14.3% Life sciences 17,102 1.5% 61.9% 2.8% 8.3% 12.8% 12.7% Agricultural sciences 1,961 0.9% 1.5% 0.1% 4.3% 55.0% 38.2% Biological sciences 15,141 1.5% 69.8% 3.1% 8.8% 7.3% 9.4% Social/behavioral sciences 6,193 5.9% 19.9% 9.1% 14.7% 6.7% 43.8% Social sciences 3,408 6.7% 8.6% 3.6% 18.3% 11.6% 51.1% Psychology 2,785 4.8% 33.7% 15.7% 10.2% 0.7% 34.9% Engineering 16,475 29.7% 5.2% 0.6% 27.7% 2.2% 34.6% SOURCE: Calculated from Table 11 in NSF, 1994a. As for the mechanisms of support (including nonfederal), the latest detailed data by field are for 1991 (Table B-10). Fellowships Fellowships are awarded to individual graduate students on the basis of merit. Table B-10 shows that about 10% of the 259,000 full-time science and engineering graduate students were supported by fellowships in 1991, and fellowship support was spread fairly evenly across the disciplines (about one-fourth of the fellowships were federally funded). Traineeships Traineeship programs are competitively awarded to universities, which select the graduate students to support. About 4% of science and engineering graduate students were trainees, most of them in the biological sciences. (About 60% of the trainees were federally supported; 30% were institutionally funded.) Research Assistantships About 30% of full-time science and engineering graduate students were supported as research associates on research grants awarded to faculty supervisors. The proportion varied by field. Graduate students in the some of the physical sciences and the life sciences were more likely to be research associates; those in the mathematical sciences and

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 110 social and behavioral sciences were less likely. (About half the research assistants were supported by federal funds and one-third by institutional funds.) Teaching Assistantships More than one-fifth (23%) of graduate students were supported primarily as teaching assistants. Graduate students in mathematics and in the physical sciences were especially likely to be teaching assistants; those in engineering and agricultural sciences were less likely than average to have teaching assistantships. Other Support “Other support” includes loans, personal funds, and tuition payments by industry and government agencies. It accounts for more than a third (33%) of graduate students. It was especially important in some fields; about half those in computer science, psychology, and social sciences were supported other than by fellowships, traineeships, and research or teaching assistantships. Graduate students in biology or the physical sciences were less likely to rely on other types of support. TABLE B-10 Mechanisms of Major Support for Full-Time Science and Engineering Graduate Students in Doctorate- Granting Institutions, 1991 Field Total No. Fellowships Traineeships Research Teaching Other Assistantships Assistantships Types of Support TOTAL 259,484 9.6% 3.9% 30.4% 23.3% 32.8% Physical/ 67,352 8.6% 1.8% 31.0% 36.3% 22.3% mathematical sciences Physical sciences 29,364 9.1% 2.6% 41.0% 38.9% 8.4% Mathematical 13,525 9.9% 1.6% 9.4% 55.2% 23.9% sciences Environmental 9,880 9.1% 0.9% 42.5% 22.9% 24.5% sciences Computer 14,583 5.8% 0.8% 23.3% 22.6% 47.5% sciences Life sciences 50,075 10.3% 10.3% 42.6% 18.1% 18.6% Agricultural 8,793 4.9% 0.9% 55.4% 9.0% 29.9% sciences Biological 41,282 11.5% 12.3% 39.9% 20.1% 16.2% sciences Social/behavioral 73,132 11.3% 3.8% 14.0% 21.9% 49.0% sciences Social sciences 47,080 14.0% 3.4% 13.5% 22.7% 46.3% Psychology 26,052 6.4% 4.4% 14.8% 20.5% 53.8% Engineering 68,925 8.1% 1.6% 38.4% 15.9% 36.0% SOURCE: Calculated from Tables C-19 and C-20 in NSF, 1993a.

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 111 Science and Engineering Graduate Students in Master's-Granting Institutions In 1992, nearly 57,000 science and engineering graduate students were in institutions whose highest degree is the master's. Most of them (65%) were enrolled part-time. Table B-11 gives their distribution and enrollment status by field and compares them with graduate students at doctorate-granting institutions. The table indicates that graduate students in master's degree institutions were much more likely to be in the social sciences and psychology and much less likely to be in the life sciences. In fact, 26% of all graduate students in the social sciences and psychology were in master's-degree institutions, compared with 11% of the remaining science and engineering graduate students. TABLE B-11 Science and Engineering Graduate Students in Master's Degree Institutions and Doctorate Institutions, by Enrollment Status and Field, 1992 Master's-Granting Institution Doctorate-Granting Institution Field All Students Full-Time All Students Full-Time TOTAL 56,832 20,009 374,781 270,984 Physical/ mathematical sciences 13,369 (24%) 4,139 (21%) 94,507 (25%) 70,021 (26%) Physical sciences 1,885 719 33,611 30,011 Mathematical sciences 2,485 774 17,890 13,889 Environmental sciences 1,645 583 13,964 10,567 Computer sciences 7,354 2,063 29,042 15,554 Life sciences 4,932 (9%) 2,122 (11%) 61,114 (16%) 51,676 (19%) Agricultural sciences 718 373 10,891 8,907 Biological sci 4,214 1,749 50,223 42,769 Social/behavioral sciences 28,776 (51%) 11,105 (56%) 110,868 (30%) 77,464 (29%) Social sciences 12,654 3,911 73,170 50,272 Psychology 16,122 7,194 37,698 27,192 Engineering 9,755 (17%) 2,643 (13%) 108,292 (29%) 71,823 (27%) SOURCE: Calculated from Tables 20 and 21 in NSF, 1994a.

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 112 THE INSTITUTIONS In 1991, there were 3,611 institutions of higher education in the United States; they enrolled 14 million students and granted 1.9 million degrees, of which about one-fourth (470,000) were in science and engineering fields (NSB, 1993:38). The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching has classified those institutions into categories according to the size of their bachelor's-degree and graduate programs, amount of research funding, and—for liberal-arts colleges—selectivity of admissions. Table B-12 shows how many institutions were in each category in 1991. TABLE B-12 Number of Academic Institutions with Science and Engineering Programs, by Highest Degree Level, 1991 Carnegie Foundation Category Science and Engineering Program Bachelor's Master's Doctorate TOTAL 1,448 738 299 Research I 67 68 71 Research II 34 34 34 Doctorate-Granting I 46 48 48 Doctorate-Granting II 56 57 53 Comprehensive I 419 318 36 Comprehensive II 167 50 1 Liberal Arts I 138 30 4 Liberal Arts II 389 42 0 Two-Year 20 0 0 Specialized 94 69 38 Other 15 20 13 Not classified 3 2 1 SOURCE: Calculated from Appendix Table 2–6 in NSB, 1993.

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 113 Although comprehensive and liberal-arts institutions were the majority of institutions granting science and engineering bachelor's and master's degrees, the research and doctorate institutions accounted for large fractions of the degrees granted: 54% of all science and engineering bachelor's degrees and 53% of the master's degrees. Degree production is especially concentrated at the doctoral level (see Table B-13): nearly two-thirds of the science and engineering PhDs awarded in 1991 came from the 71 Research I universities, four-fifths from the 105 Research I and II universities; and nine-tenths from the 153 Research I and II and Doctorate I universities. The same set of 153 universities also receives 90% of all academic R&D funding (NSB, 1993:40; Appendix Table 2– 5). TABLE B-13 Concentration of Science and Engineering Degree Awards by Type of Institution, 1991 Carnegie Foundation Category Total No. and Cumulative Percentage of Science and Engineering Degrees Awarded Bachelors Masters Doctorate TOTAL 337,675 78,368 23,979 Research I 29.3 37.6 65.2 Research II 39.1 49.2 79.5 Doctorate-Granting I 47.2 59.0 89.4 Doctorate-Granting II 53.7 68.0 94.7 Comprehensive I 83.5 91.4 96.2 Comprehensive II 87.0 93.2 96.2 Liberal Arts I 93.6 94.3 96.4 Liberal Arts II 97.7 95.3 96.4 Two-Year 97.9 95.3 96.4 Specialized 99.3 98.1 98.4 Other 99.9 99.9 99.9 Not classified 100.0 100.0 100.0 SOURCE: Calculated from Appendix Table 2–6 in NSB, 1993.

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 114 The 105 Research I and II universities produce nearly 80% of the science and engineering doctorates awarded each year (see Table B-14). This concentration of PhD production differs some by broad field, although the 71 Research I institutions accounted for at least the majority of PhDs granted in each. TABLE B-14 Concentration of 80 Percent of Science and Engineering PhD Production in the 105 Research Universities, by Field, 1991 Carnegie Foundation Natural Sciences Math & Computer Social & Behavioral Engineering Category Sciences Sciences TOTAL 10,152 1,837 6,778 5,212 Research I (n=71) 67.3% 70.3% 55.4% 71.9% Research II (n=34) 81.9% 84.5% 71.0% 84.2% SOURCE: Calculated from Appendix Table 2–5 in NSB, 1993. There was substantial growth in the number of institutions with graduate degree programs since 1961 (see Table B-15). The number of institutions granting doctorates doubled between 1961 and 1991; the number of master's-degree institutions more than doubled. TABLE B-15 Number of Institutions by Highest Degree Level Since 1961, by Decade Highest Degree Granted Year Master's Doctorate 1961 189 153 1971 287 229 1981 361 293 1991 442 299 SOURCE: Calculated from Appendix Table 5–1 in NSB, 1985 for 1961–1981; and Appendix Table 2–6 in NSB, 1993 for 1991.

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 115 SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING MASTER'S DEGREES Master's Degrees in Science and Engineering The number of master's degrees awarded in science and engineering has grown every year since 1966 except in the 1979–1981 period (Table 1 in NSF, 1994b). In 1991, over 78,000 science and engineering master's degrees were awarded, up from 41,000 in 1966. Science and engineering master's degrees were 29% of all master's degrees awarded in 1966, a percentage that declined to less than 21 in 1976, increased to 25% in 1987, and fell again to 23% in 1991. According to Table B-16, about one-third of science and engineering master's degrees are awarded in the social and behavioral sciences, three-tenths in engineering, one-fourth in the natural sciences, and one-tenth in the life sciences (NSF, 1994b). (Compared with 1966, the social/behavioral sciences increased their share by almost 9 percentage points, gaining 5 points from the life, sciences, 3 from engineering, and 1 from the natural sciences.) TABLE B-16 Science and Engineering Master's Degrees Awarded, by Field, 1966–1991 Field 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 TOTAL 41,059 (100.0%) 56,454 65,007 64,366 71,831 78,368 (100.0%) Physical/ mathematical 9,975 (24.3%) 13,131 11,927 12,029 17,124 18,232 (23.3%) sciences Physical sciences 4,275 5,115 3,880 3,366 3,649 3,777 Mathematical/ computer 5,010 6,789 6,466 6,787 11,241 12,956 sciences Environmental sciences 690 1,227 1,581 1,876 2,234 1,499 Life sciences 5,865 (14.3%) 7,604 9,223 9,107 8,027 7,406 (9.5%) Agricultural sciences 1,641 1,848 2,602 3,092 2,983 2,600 Biological sciences 4,224 5,756 6,621 6,015 5,044 4,806 Social/behavioral sciences 11,514 (28.0%) 19,352 27,812 26,779 25,584 28,717 (36.6%) Social sciences 9,091 14,914 19,953 18,740 17,221 18,915 Psychology 2,423 4,438 7,859 8,039 8,363 9,802 Engineering 13,705 (33.4%) 16,367 16,045 16,451 21,096 24,013 (30.6%) SOURCE: Calculated from Table 1 in NSF, 1994b.

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 116 Women Women earned 13.3% of the science and engineering master's degrees in 1966, a percentage that increased steadily to nearly 36% in 1991 (see Table B-17). This varied by field. The number of science and engineering master's degrees per 1,000 24-year-old women in the US population increased from 4 in 1966 to 15 in 1991 (NSF, 1994b: Table 57). Meanwhile, the number going to men went from more than 30 per 1000 in 1969–1970 to 26 in 1991 (after reaching a high of 32 in 1970 and a low of 21 in the early 1980s). Overall, in 1991, 21 master's degrees in science and engineering were awarded for every 1000 24-year- olds in the US population, up from 15 in 1966. TABLE B-17 Women as Percentage of Science and Engineering Master's-Degree Recipients, by Field, 1991 Field 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 TOTAL 13.3 18.3 23.1 29.3 32.3 35.6 Physical/ mathematical sciences 15.5 19.3 21.1 24.3 29.0 31.3 Physical sciences 11.4 14.4 15.6 20.1 25.0 28.4 Math/computer sciences 20.3 24.9 26.1 27.2 31.4 32.8 Environmental sciences 6.1 9.5 13.9 21.6 23.1 25.6 Life sciences 20.8 27.1 26.8 33.4 41.7 46.3 Agricultural sciences 4.4 6.2 14.1 22.8 31.2 36.2 Biological sciences 27.2 33.8 31.8 38.9 47.9 51.8 Social/behavioral sciences 22.8 28.7 34.0 43.2 48.9 53.7 Social sciences 20.2 26.2 29.0 36.8 41.2 45.6 Psychology 32.9 37.2 46.7 58.1 64.9 69.5 Engineering 0.6 1.1 3.5 8.1 11.4 14.0 SOURCE: Calculated from Table 18 in NSF, 1994b.

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 117 Underrepresented Minorities NSF has collected information on the race, ethnicity, and citizenship of master's degree recipients biennially since 1977. Table B-18 shows that the proportion of science and engineering master's degrees awarded to members of underrepresented minorities (i.e., blacks, Hispanics, and American Indians) has increased slowly in the natural sciences and engineering, offset by declines in psychology and the social sciences, fields that traditionally have registered the largest shares of underrepresented minorities. TABLE B-18 Members of Underrepresented Minorities as Percentage of Science and Engineering Master's Degree Recipients, by Field, 1977–1991 Field 1977 1981 1987 1991 TOTAL 7.8 7.5 7.0 7.3 Physical/ mathematical sciences 4.1 3.7 4.0 4.4 Physical/ environmental sciences 3.4 3.6 3.7 3.4 Mathematical/ computer sciences 5.1 4.5 4.1 5.3 Life sciences 4.2 4.4 5.4 5.3 Agricultural sciences 3.5 3.9 4.2 4.1 Biological sciences 4.6 4.8 6.1 6.0 Social/ behavioral sciences 11.3 11.1 10.2 11.1 Social sciences 11.6 11.7 10.8 11.7 Psychology 10.3 8.4 8.4 9.1 Engineering 3.2 3.4 4.5 3.9 SOURCE: Calculated from Table 4 in NSF, 1994c. Non-US Citizens Non-US citizens with temporary visas received almost 20% of the science and engineering master's degrees in 1991, almost double their share in 1977 (see Table B-19). Most

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 118 were in physical or mathematical science and engineering programs, where they constituted about 30% of all master's-degree students. They were relatively unlikely to be in social-science or psychology programs. TABLE B-19 Science and Engineering Master's Degrees Earned by Students Who Were Not US Citizens, by Field, 1977, 1985, and 1991 1977 1985 1991 Field No. % No. % No. % TOTAL 8,282 9.9 13,256 16.3 18,013 19.5 Physical/ mathematical sciences 1,392 11.8 3,492 22.1 5,382 29.5 Physical/ environmental sciences 656 12.3 1,098 18.9 1,504 28.5 Mathematical/ computer sciences 736 11.3 2,394 24.0 3,878 29.9 Life sciences 1,141 10.5 1,080 13.1 1,352 18.2 Agricultural sciences 664 17.8 606 19.2 603 23.0 Biological sciences 477 6.7 474 9.3 749 15.6 Social/ behavioral sciences 2,204 5.0 2,866 8.0 3,583 8.7 Social sciences 2,033 5.6 2,570 9.5 3,270 10.3 Psychology 171 2.1 296 3.5 317 3.2 Engineering 3,545 21.8 5,818 26.7 7,692 30.5 SOURCE: Calculated from Table 4 in NSF, 1994g.

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 119 SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING DOCTORAL DEGREES Doctorates in Science and Engineering The number of science and engineering PhDs awarded annually tripled between 1958 and 1968 to about 18,000. Between 1968 and 1974, the number leveled off or fell in various fields, although the aggregate number peaked in 1971–1973 at nearly 19,400 per year, and fell to fewer than 18,000 per year by 1977, where it remained through 1981. Table B-20 shows the numbers of science and engineering PhDs awarded during 1983–1993 period.

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 120 TABLE B-21 Increases in Numbers of Science and Engineering Doctorates Awarded, by Field, 1988–1993 Increase Field 1988 1993 No. Percentage TOTAL 20,748 25,184 4,436 21.4% Physical/ mathematical sciences 5,309 6,496 1,187 22.4 Physics/Astronomy 1,302 1,543 241 18.5 Chemistry 2,015 2,139 124 6.2 Mathematics 749 1,146 397 53.0 Computer sciences 515 878 363 70.5 Environmental sciences 728 790 62 8.5 Life sciences 5,127 6,059 932 18.2 Agricultural sciences 1,015 969 −46 −4.5 Biological sciences 4,112 5,090 978 23.8 Social/behavioral sciences 6,125 6,933 808 13.2 Social sciences 3,051 3,514 463 15.2 Psychology 3,074 3,419 345 11.2 Engineering 4,187 5,696 1,509 36.0 SOURCE: Calculated from Table 1 in NSF, 1994f.

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 121 Women The number of women awarded science and engineering PhDs increased from 4,624 in 1983 to 7,537 in 1993, or 63.0%. As a result, the proportion of PhD awards to women increased from 25.1% in 1983 to 29.9% in 1993. They varied from field to field (see Table B-22). TABLE B-22 Women as a Percentage of Science and Engineering Doctorate Recipients, by Field, 1983–1993 Field 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 TOTAL 25.1 25.4 25.7 26.4 26.6 26.9 27.9 27.8 28.7 28.6 29.9 Physical/ mathematical 13.9 14.8 15.8 16.1 16.5 16.6 18.9 18.3 18.7 19.7 20.7 sciences Physics/Astronomy 7.1 7.3 9.4 9.2 9.7 10.0 9.3 10.8 11.1 12.1 12.6 Chemistry 16.9 18.1 19.7 20.8 20.6 21.2 25.3 24.0 23.6 26.2 27.3 Mathematics 16.1 16.5 15.4 16.6 16.9 16.2 18.0 17.7 19.2 19.4 23.0 Computer sciences 12.6 12.5 10.6 12.0 14.4 10.9 17.6 15.6 14.6 13.8 15.6 Environmental sciences 15.2 17.3 18.0 17.0 18.2 19.9 20.3 19.4 22.1 23.4 20.8 Life sciences 28.7 27.6 28.7 30.2 31.8 33.0 34.0 33.8 34.6 35.2 37.6 Agricultural sciences 13.1 13.3 15.4 17.3 17.5 18.3 21.0 21.0 19.5 21.9 23.5 Biological sciences 33.0 31.3 32.6 33.6 35.4 36.6 37.5 37.3 38.1 38.2 40.3 Social/ behavioral 39.1 40.6 40.8 42.0 42.8 44.5 44.8 45.9 48.7 47.1 49.0 sciences Social sciences 29.8 30.4 31.7 33.0 31.4 34.3 33.2 33.0 36.3 35.6 37.1 Psychology 47.7 50.1 49.4 51.2 53.5 54.7 56.1 58.3 61.4 59.1 61.1 Engineering 4.5 5.2 6.3 6.7 6.5 6.8 8.3 8.5 9.0 9.3 9.1 SOURCE: Calculated from Tables 1 and 2 in NSF, 1994b. Women earning science and engineering PhDs were concentrated in particular fields. In 1993, nearly half (45%) were in the social and behavioral sciences, and 30% were in the life sciences (see Table B-23). The concentration in social and behavioral sciences was reduced over the previous 10 years, however, as more awards to women were made in the physical and mathematical sciences and engineering. Overall, the shift was 4.5 percentage points (to nearly 18%). The number of women receiving PhDs in the physical and mathematical sciences more than doubled from 1983 to 1993 (from 617 to 1,344). The number in engineering quadrupled (from 124 to 521), but fewer than 7% of women PhDs were in engineering.

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 122 TABLE B-23 Science and Engineering Doctorates Awarded to Women, by Field, 1983 and 1993 1983 1993 Field Number Percentage Number Percentage TOTAL 4,624 100.0 7,537 100.0 Physical/ mathematical sciences 617 13.3 1,344 17.8 Physics/astronomy 74 1.6 194 2.6 Chemistry 297 6.4 585 7.8 Mathematics 113 2.4 264 3.5 Computer sciences 36 0.8 137 1.8 Environmental sciences 97 2.1 164 2.2 Life sciences 1,366 29.5 2,278 30.2 Agricultural sciences 133 2.9 228 3.0 Biological sciences 1,233 26.7 2,050 27.2 Social/behavioral sciences 2,517 54.4 3,394 45.0 Social sciences 920 19.9 1,305 17.3 Psychology 1,597 34.5 2,089 27.7 Engineering 124 2.7 521 6.9 SOURCE: Calculated from Table 2 in NSF, 1994f.

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 123 The percentage of science and engineering doctorates awarded to members of underrepresented minorities— American Indians, blacks, and Hispanics—has been very low and has increased slowly (see Table B-24). In fact, the percentage of doctorates received by black citizens declined during the last half of the 1980s. TABLE B-24 Members of Underrepresented Minorities as a Percentage of Science and Engineering Doctorate Recipients, by Field, 1983, 1988, and 1993 1983 1988 1993 Field No. Percentage No. Percentage No. Percentage All US Citizens 13,403 100.0 13,218 100.0 14,708 100.0 Underrepresented 547 4.1 628 4.8 843 5.7 Minorities American Indian 27 0.2 41 0.3 41 0.3 Black 283 2.1 260 2.0 363 2.5 Hispanic 237 1.8 327 2.5 439 3.0 SOURCE: Calculated from Table 3 in NSF, 1994f.

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 124 Non-US Citizens In 1993, more than 8,000 science and engineering PhDs went to foreign citizens with temporary visas— nearly one-third of all the doctorates awarded by US universities (see Table B-25). Only 18.5% of PhDs awarded in 1983 went to foreign citizen with temporary visas. In 1993, they received just under half of the new doctorates in engineering, up from 42% 10 years earlier. They were awarded more than one-third (36%) of the PhDs in the physical and mathematical sciences and more than one-fourth (28%) of those in the life sciences. TABLE B-25 Share of Science and Engineering Doctorates Earned by Students Who Were Not US Citizens, by Field, 1983 and 1993 1983 Doctorates Awarded 1993 Doctorates Awarded All Temporary Visa All Temporary Visa Field No. Percentage No. Percentage TOTAL 18,393 3,400 18.5 25,184 8,087 32.1 Physical/ mathematical sciences 4,426 926 20.9 6,496 2,363 36.4 Physics/astronomy 1,043 256 24.5 1,543 583 37.8 Chemistry 1,759 283 16.1 2,139 674 31.5 Mathematics 701 209 29.8 1,146 517 45.1 Computer sciences 286 72 25.2 878 349 39.7 Environmental sciences 637 106 16.6 790 240 30.4 Life sciences 4,756 629 13.2 6,059 1,694 28.0 Agricultural sciences 1,015 307 30.2 969 448 46.2 Biological sciences 3,741 322 8.6 5,090 1,246 24.5 Social/ behavioral sciences 6,430 675 10.5 6,933 1,247 18.0 Social sciences 3,083 596 19.3 3,514 1,099 31.3 Psychology 3,347 79 2.4 3,419 148 4.3 Engineering 2,781 1,170 42.1 5,696 2,783 48.9 SOURCE: Calculated from Table 4 in NSF, 1994f.

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 125 The number of non-US citizens with temporary visas increased 138% over a decade—from 3,400 in 1983 to 8,087 in 1993 (Table B-26). That increase was greater in the physical and mathematical sciences and in the life sciences. The rate of growth was lower than average in the social and behavioral sciences. TABLE B-26 Increase in Science and Engineering Doctorates Awarded to Non-US Citizens with Temporary Visas, by Field, 1983 and 1993 Difference Field 1983 1993 No. Percentage TOTAL 3,400 8,087 4,687 137.9 Physical/ mathematical sciences 926 2,363 1,437 155.2 Physics/astronomy 256 583 327 127.7 Chemistry 283 674 391 138.2 Mathematics 209 517 308 147.4 Computer sciences 72 349 277 384.7 Environmental sciences 106 240 134 126.4 Life sciences 629 1,694 1,065 169.3 Agricultural sciences 307 448 141 45.9 Biological sciences 322 1,246 924 287.0 Social/ behavioral sciences 675 1,247 572 84.7 Social sciences 596 1,099 503 84.4 Psychology 79 148 69 87.3 Engineering 1,170 2,783 1,613 137.9 SOURCE: Calculated from Table 4 in NSF, 1994f. Table B-27 shows the distribution of foreign citizens with temporary visas, by field. In 1993, roughly one- third were in engineering, and another one-third were in the physical/mathematical sciences. Around 15–20% were in each of the life sciences and the social sciences. Compared with 1983, temporary-visa holders moved away from the social sciences (by about 4.5 percentage points) and into the physical/mathematical sciences (by about 2 points) and the life sciences (by about 2.5 points).

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 126 TABLE B-27 Science and Engineering Doctorates Awarded to Non-US Citizens with Temporary Visas, by Field, 1983 and 1993 Field 1983 1993 TOTAL 3,400 8,087 Physical/mathematical sciences 27.2% 29.2% Physics/astronomy 7.5% 7.2% Chemistry 8.3% 8.3% Mathematics 6.1% 6.4% Computer sciences 2.1% 4.3% Environmental sciences 3.1% 3.0% Life sciences 18.5% 20.9% Agricultural sciences 9.0% 5.5% Biological sciences 9.5% 15.4% Social/behavioral sciences 19.9% 15.4% Social sciences 17.5% 13.6% Psychology 2.3% 1.8% Engineering 34.4% 34.1% SOURCE: Calculated from Table 4 in NSF, 1994f.

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 127 The country of origin of temporary-visa holders shifted during the 1980s (see Table B-28). Citizens from eastern Asia increased their share of science and engineering PhDs awarded to temporary-visa holders from one- fourth to more than a half. Nearly all this increase was accounted for by students from the People's Republic of China, who increased their share from near zero in 1982 to 22% of all the science and engineering PhDs earned by temporary-visa holders in 1992. TABLE B-28 Region and Country of Origin of Foreign Citizens with Temporary Visas Earning Science and Engineering PhDs, 1983 and 1993 Country 1983 1993 TOTAL 3,400 (100.0%) 8,087 (100.0%) East Asia 958 (28.2%) 4,335 (53.6%) Taiwan 438 (12.9%) 1,055 (13.0%) PRC 3 (0.1%) 1,745 (21.6%) Korea 136 (4.0%) 1,027 (12.7%) West Asia 935 (27.5%) 1,538 (19.0%) India 308 (9.1%) 789 (9.8%) Africa 385 (11.3%) 374 (4.6%) Europe 314 (9.2%) 838 (10.4%) Other 808 (23.8%) 1,002 (12.4%) SOURCE: Calculated from Table 5 in NSF, 1994f. The annual reports of the Survey of Earned Doctorates conducted by the National Research Council for NSF have documented a substantial increase since 1970 in the time it has taken to obtain a PhD, whether measured in years since the bachelor's degree or in years registered in graduate school. According to these reports, which calculate the median time-to-degree (TTD) of all those obtaining PhDs each year, the figure has increased by about 30% over the last 20 years. According to the latest report of the Survey of Earned Doctorates, total TTD (years from bachelor's degree to doctorate), or TTTD, went up by 29.6% from 1967 to 1993, from 8.1 to 10.5 years (Table B-29). The trend in registered time-to-degree (RTTD) was similar—31.5% (from 5.4 to 7.1 years). However, 1967 was near the postwar total-TTD low of 8 years reached in 1970. TTTD increased for decades (from 7 years in 1920 to 9 in 1962), fell during the 1960s to the low of 8 years in 1970, and then resumed its upward trend after 1970 (Bowen and Rudenstine, 1992: Figure 6.3).

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 128 Those figures are for all PhDs in all fields, including humanities, education, and the professional (which have had the highest TTDs historically). The patterns vary widely by field, even within the sciences and engineering. Engineering and physical sciences have always had shorter than average completion times; social sciences, longer. The increase in TTD has slowed considerably since about 1987, even though the recession of the early 1990s might have increased the incentive to stay in school a year or two longer. TABLE B-29 Median Total Time-to-Degree for Doctorate Recipients, 1962–1993 (selected years) Field 1962 1967 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1993 All fields (including humanities) Registered 5.4 5.4 5.7 6.1 6.5 6.9 7.1 7.1 Total 8.8 8.1 8.2 8.7 9.6 10.4 10.5 10.5 All Science and Engineering Registered 6.4 6.7 6.7 Total 8.6 9.1 9.2 Physical sciences Registered 5.1 5.1 5.6 5.7 5.8 6.0 6.5 6.5 Total 6.5 6.0 6.5 6.9 6.9 7.4 8.1 8.3 Life sciences Registered 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.7 6.0 6.5 6.7 6.8 Total 7.8 7.2 7.0 7.3 7.6 8.8 9.4 9.4 Social sciences Registered 5.4 5.2 5.6 5.9 6.7 7.2 7.5 7.4 Total 9.0 7.7 7.5 8.0 9.2 10.4 10.6 10.4 Engineering Registered 5.0 5.2 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 6.2 6.3 Total 7.1 7.2 7.5 7.5 8.0 8.1 8.7 8.8 SOURCE: Calculated from Table 6 in NRC, 1995. In conducting the research for their recent book In Pursuit of the PhD, Bowen and Rudenstine (1992:113– 119), noticed that TTD figures were lower for their sample of 10 schools. They consulted demographers who suggested a different method for determining TTD that should be more accurate. The method used by the Office of Scientific and Engineering

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 129 Personnel (OSEP) and others determines the median number of TTD years for all those receiving their doctorates in a particular year. The demographers pointed out that this permits a bias if the cohorts entering graduate school are increasing or decreasing in size over time. Each entering class of PhD candidates has some fast finishers and some slow finishers. In a period such as the late 1950s and 1960s, when the number entering PhD programs was growing every year, the proportion of fast finishers showing up for their degrees a few years later increased and made the decreases in TTD larger than they would have been if cohorts had been steady. Similarly, when cohort sizes decrease, as they did in 1974–1984, the proportion of fast finishers getting their degrees a few years later goes down, increasing the apparent TTD. More recently, enrollments have gone up again, and that accounts for at least part of the decrease in TTD medians in the past several years. Bowen and Rudenstine corrected for that bias by calculating average TTD of entering cohort, rather than graduating cohort. They asked, how long on the average, did it take those entering a PhD program (or getting their bachelor's degrees in year X to get their doctorates? They found that use of the entering-cohort method gave an increase in TTD of about 10% over the preceding 15–20 years, not 30%. They admitted that any lengthening in the already-long TTD is a serious problem but said that its magnitude and newness had been exaggerated. A study of TTD by staff of OSEP reviewed the literature on the causes of increasing TTD (Tuckman, et al., 1990). They found that earlier studies had looked at sociological, demographic, economic, and institutional factors, although few had looked at them all and undertaken a causal analysis. They developed a model of TTD with five vectors of variables: family background characteristics, individual abilities and interests, tuition and financial aid, institutional environment and policies, and economic and social forces. They tested the model in 11 fields using data from the Survey of Earned Doctorates and found a variety of factors that affected registered time-to-degree (RTTD) or total time-to-degree (TTTD), including the availability and form of student support, labor-market conditions, sociodemographic characteristics of the doctorate recipients, and characteristics of the undergraduate and graduate institutions. Yet no factor or set of factors consistently explained the general upward trend in TTD. That might be because TTD is poorly measured (the study was based on the graduating, rather than the entering, cohort), or because the data are inadequate. They are aggregate data, and some measure the variables of interest only indirectly; other variables, such as increasing complexity of subject matter or the incentive for faculty to keep students longer as cheap labor on research projects, are not measured at all. As for negative consequences, the following have been mentioned (Tuckman, et al., 1990): • The increasing time spent in graduate school increases the time it takes for the supply of PhDs to respond to shifts in market demand, and that has both social and individual costs (if demand goes up, there are not enough qualified people; if it falls, highly capable people cannot be employed in their field of training).

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 130 • Increasing TTD will discourage some highly qualified candidates from staying in science (perhaps some of the most qualified students, who can more easily find attractive alternatives). • Delayed start of career reduces the total years of productivity for society and the return on investment for the individual. Bowen and Rudenstine (1992) also studied the effects of financial support in some detail in their 10-school sample. They found that it mattered. Students who received financial aid had much higher completion rates and shorter TTD than students who relied on their own resources. In the sciences, the form of the aid had an effect on completion and TTD; research assistantships had the best effect, fellowships a close second, and teaching assistantships the worst effect. They also found that the NSF fellowship program had been very successful in reducing median TTD (4.9 years versus 5.6 years for those who were not NSF fellows in an eight-university group). Interpreting such findings is problematic, however. Did the NSF fellows finish earlier because of the fellowship form of support itself or because they were selected through a rigorous process that selected more- motivated students? In conclusion, both RTTD and TTTD have been increasing for a long time, with the exception of the 1960s. Presumably, the increases are caused in part by the increasing complexity of knowledge and techniques to be mastered in doctorate programs and in part by less-desirable or less-excusable reasons (e.g., an increase in tuition costs and a decrease in federal aid, which force students to work more during graduate school, or a desire of faculty to keep students working on research projects). They are also caused in part by the increasing participation of women and minority-group members, who generally have longer TTDs. According to Bowen and Rudenstine, having outside aid does improve completion and TTD rates. The form of the aid—fellowships, research assistantships, or teaching assistantships—might have little independent effect. Source of Support The Survey of Earned Doctorates (SED) administered yearly by OSEP for NSF asks new PhDs to list their primary source of support during graduate school. The data for 1993 are displayed in Table B-30. It should be noted, however, that the nonresponse rate to this question was 34%, for unknown reasons (it was 23% in 1991, and 30% in 1992). It also should be noted that federally funded research assistantships are listed with other research assistantships under “university” because students often do not know the source of support for their research assistantships. Federal loans are listed under “personal.” “Other” includes national fellowships, employer funds, and support from foreign governments, state governments, and other nonspecified sources. The “life sciences” include “health science” PhDs as well as the biological and agricultural scientists listed in the other tables in this appendix.

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 131 A brief analysis of the table shows that a relatively large percentage of the PhD recipients in social sciences are self-supporting—nearly half, compared with 10–15% of those in the physical sciences and engineering and a fifth of those in the life sciences. PhDs in the life sciences receive the most direct federal support, probably resulting from the large fellowship and traineeship programs of the National Institutes of Health. Most PhDs in the physical sciences and engineering, and to a lesser extent the life sciences, receive their primary support from their universities. That includes federally funded research assistantships, as well as other research and teaching assistantships. TABLE B-30 Primary Sources of Support for Science and Engineering Doctorate Recipients, by Broad Field, 1993 (percentages) Field Personal University Federal Other TOTAL 23.8 61.4 7.5 7.3 Physical sciences 12.1 77.9 4.5 5.4 Life sciences 21.4 56.8 14.4 7.4 Social sciences 47.8 41.6 5.0 5.6 Engineering 14.7 69.3 4.9 11.1 SOURCE: Calculated from Table 11 in NRC, 1995. POSTDOCTORATE EMPLOYMENT PLANS According to the SED, among new science and engineering PhDs who had definite postgraduation plans, the percentage planning to work in academe (college or university) was 48% in the early 1960s (NRC, 1978: Table 30). That figure increased to 57.0% in 1970 before falling steadily to 44.1 % in 1980 (NSF, 1993b: Table 15) and 40.4% in 1993 (NSF, 1994f: Table 7). Meanwhile, the proportion of new science and engineering PhDs going to business and industry grew from about 22% in the 1960s to 26.5% in 1970 and 36.2% in 1993. Note that Table B-31 does not include those with definite plans for postdoctoral study in the United States, almost all at universities. These numbered 2,789 in 1970, 3,571 in 1980, 4,676 in 1990, and 5,739 in 1993 (NSF, 1993b: Table 15, 1994f: Table 7). It also should be noted that the percentage of science and engineering PhDs who had definite plans at the time of the SED survey fell from 76.6% in 1970 to 72.0% in 1980, 64.0% in 1990, and 60.1% in 1993 (NSF, 1993b: Table 15, 1994f: Table 7).

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 132 TABLE B-31 Science and Engineering PhD Recipients with Definite Postgraduation Commitments in the United States, by Field and Type of Employer, 1970–1991 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 Field No. Percentage No. Percentage TOTAL 9,216 100.0 8,187 7,285 6,614 7,175 7,403 100.0 College/university 5,263 57.1 4,287 3,228 2,851 2,952 3,099 41.9 Elementary/ secondary school 44 0.5 99 113 95 81 111 1.5 Government 1,015 11.0 1,365 1,142 885 871 890 12.0 Nonprofit organization 408 4.4 443 537 502 493 492 6.6 Industry/business 2,399 26.0 1,886 2,139 2,099 2,452 2,488 33.6 Self-employed 48 0.5 71 101 145 240 229 3.1 Other and unknown 39 0.4 36 25 37 86 94 1.3 SOURCE: Calculated from Table 5 in NSF, 1993b.

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 133 POSTDOCTORAL STUDY TRENDS TABLE B-32 Postdoctoral Study Plans of Recipients of Science and Engineering Doctorates from US Universities, 1985– 1992 PhD Recipients 1985 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 TOTAL 19,164 20,203 21,411 22,294 23,440 24,543 25,248 Postdoctoral plans 5,941 6,728 7,216 7,268 8,087 8,811 9,316 Fellowship 49.0% 48.0% 48.7% 49.7% 49.0% 49.9% 50.7% Research associate 41.3% 42.9% 43.0% 40.5% 41.7% 41.5% 41.2% Traineeship 4.5% 3.6% 3.9% 4.0% 4.1% 3.9% 3.3% Other 5.2% 5.1% 4.4% 5.5% 4.9% 5.0% 5.1% SOURCE: Calculated from Appendix Table A-3 in NRC, 1993. TABLE B-33 Postdoctoral Study Plans of Recipients of Science and Engineering Doctorates from US Universities, by Field, 1992 PhD Recipients Physical Sciences Engineering Life Sciences Social Sciences Total Science and Engineering TOTAL 6,498 5,437 7,108 6,205 25,248 Postdoctoral plans 3,022 1,202 4,066 1,036 9,316 Fellowship 53.1% 34.4% 57.5% 64.7% 50.7% Research associate 42.8% 58.8% 32.3% 19.2% 41.2% Traineeship 2.2% 4.1% 2.6% 9.6% 3.3% Other 1.9% 3.2% 7.7% 6.6% 5.1% SOURCE: Calculated from Appendix Table A-3 in NRC, 1993.

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 134

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 135 TABLE B-35 Trends in Net Growth of Science and Engineering Postdoctoral Appointee Positions in Doctorate-Granting Institutions, by Field, 1982 and 1992 Growth, 1982–1992 Percentage Distribution of Postdoctoral Positions Among All Fields Field 1982 1992 Difference Percentage 1982 1992 All Science and 14,672 24,024 9,352 63.7 100.0 100.0 Engineering Science, Total 13,694 21,680 7,986 58.3 93.3 90.2 Physical sciences 4,281 5,772 1,491 34.8 29.2 24.0 Physics 1,326 1,954 628 47.4 9.0 8.1 Chemistry 2,805 3,573 768 27.4 19.1 14.9 Environmental sciences 335 709 374 111.6 2.3 3.0 Mathematical sciences 194 201 7 3.6 1.3 0.8 Computer sciences 46 149 103 223.9 0.3 0.6 Agricultural sciences 279 634 355 127.2 1.9 2.6 Biological sciences 7,756 13,287 5,531 71.3 52.9 55.3 Psychology 520 521 1 0.2 3.5 2.2 Social sciences 283 407 124 43.8 1.9 1.7 Engineering, Total 978 2,344 1,366 139.7 6.7 9.8 Chemical engineering 174 554 380 218.4 1.2 2.3 Materials 166 458 292 175.9 1.1 1.9 Mechanical 130 355 225 173.1 0.9 1.5 Electrical 176 307 124 74.4 1.2 1.3 SOURCE: Calculated from Table C-25 in NSF, 1992a; and, for 1991 and 1992, NSF, unpublished tables.

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 136 TABLE B-36 Appointments of Postdoctoral Scientists and Engineers Who Were Not US Citizens in Doctorate-Granting Institutions, by Field, 1982 and 1992 Growth, 1982–1992 Percentage of All Percentage of All Non- Postdocs within Field US Science and Engineering Postdocs Field 1982 1992 Difference Percentage 1982 1992 1982 1992 All Science and 5,961 12,627 6,666 111.8 40.6 52.6 100.0 100.0 Engineering Science, Total 5,304 11,053 5,749 108.4 38.7 51.0 89.0 87.5 Physical sciences 2,367 3,506 1,139 48.1 55.3 60.7 39.7 27.8 Physics 673 1,099 426 63.3 50.8 56.2 11.3 8.7 Chemistry 1,661 2,311 650 39.1 59.2 64.7 27.9 18.3 Environmental 121 276 155 128.1 36.1 38.9 2.0 2.2 sciences Mathematical 126 109 −17 −13.5 64.9 54.2 2.1 0.9 sciences Computer sciences 12 50 38 316.7 26.1 33.6 0.2 0.4 Agricultural 116 275 159 137.1 41.6 43.4 1.9 2.2 sciences Biological sciences 2,397 6,574 4,177 174.3 30.9 49.5 40.2 52.1 Psychology 65 127 62 95.4 12.5 24.4 1.1 1.0 Social sciences 100 136 36 36.0 35.3 33.4 1.7 1.1 Engineering, Total 657 1,574 917 139.6 67.2 67.2 11.0 12.5 Chemical 133 415 282 212.0 76.4 74.9 2.2 3.3 engineering Materials 138 331 193 139.9 83.1 72.3 2.3 2.6 Mechanical 100 211 111 111.0 76.9 59.4 1.7 1.7 Electrical 94 186 92 97.9 53.4 60.6 1.6 1.5 NOTE: Includes permanent residents and those with temporary visas. SOURCE: Calculated from Table C-30 in NSF, 1992a; and, for 1991 and 1992, NSF, unpublished tables.

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 137 TABLE B-37 Federally Supported Science and Engineering Postdoctoral Appointees in Doctorate-Granting Institutions, by Field, 1982 and 1992 Growth, 1982–1992 Percentage of All Percentage of All Postdocs within Field Federally Supported Postdocs Field 1982 1992 Difference Percent 1982 1992 1982 1992 All Science and 11,119 17,660 6,541 58.8 75.8 73.5 100.0 100.0 Engineering Science, Total 10,447 16,050 5,603 53.6 74.8 74.0 94.0 90.9 Physical sciences 3,600 4,589 989 27.5 64.1 79.5 32.4 26.0 Physics 1,156 1,641 485 42.0 87.2 84.0 10.4 9.3 Chemistry 2,307 2,730 423 18.3 82.2 76.4 20.7 15.5 Environmental 255 556 301 118.0 76.1 78.4 2.3 3.1 sciences Mathematical 46 143 97 210.9 23.7 71.1 0.4 0.8 sciences Computer sciences 25 113 88 352.0 54.3 75.8 0.2 0.6 Agricultural 166 417 251 151.2 59.5 65.8 1.5 2.4 sciences Biological sciences 5,825 9,695 3,870 66.4 75.1 73.0 52.4 54.9 Psychology 392 358 −34 −8.7 75.4 68.7 3.5 2.0 Social sciences 138 179 41 29.7 48.8 44.0 1.2 1.0 Engineering, Total 672 1,610 938 139.6 68.7 68.7 6.0 9.1 Chemical 100 340 240 240.0 57.5 61.4 0.9 1.9 engineering Materials 121 284 163 134.7 72.9 62.0 1.1 1.6 Mechanical 94 250 156 166.0 72.3 70.4 0.8 1.4 Electrical 118 229 111 94.1 67.0 74.6 1.1 1.3 NOTE: These are postdoctoral appointees for whom federal agencies and programs are “the source of the largest amount of their support” (those supported by federal loans are not included). SOURCE: Calculated from Table C-27 in NSF, 1992a; and, for 1991 and 1992, NSF, unpublished tables.

STATISTICS ON GRADUATE EDUCATION OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 138 TABLE B-38 Sources of Support for Science and Engineering Postdoctoral Appointees in Doctorate-Granting Institutions, by Field, 1992 Federal Sources Non-Federal Field Total Total Fellowships (%) Traineeships(%) Research Sources Grants (%) All Science and 24,024 17,660 11.1 7.6 81.3 6,364 Engineering Science, Total 21,680 16,050 11.8 8.2 80.0 5,630 Physical sciences 5,772 4,589 7.5 0.8 91.7 1,183 Physics 1,954 1,641 4.4 0.2 95.4 313 Chemistry 3,573 2,730 8.5 1.2 90.3 843 Environmental 709 556 7.9 1.1 91.0 153 sciences Mathematical 201 143 16.1 4.2 79.7 58 sciences Computer sciences 149 113 1.8 0.9 97.3 36 Agricultural sciences 634 417 9.8 0.5 89.7 217 Biological sciences 13,287 9,695 13.9 11.9 74.2 3,592 Psychology 521 358 14.2 23.5 62.3 163 Social sciences 407 179 27.4 14.5 58.1 228 Engineering, Total 2,344 1,610 3.7 1.1 95.2 734 Chemical engineering 554 340 0.9 0.9 98.2 214 Materials 458 284 1.1 0.0 98.9 174 Mechanical 355 250 4.4 2.4 93.2 105 Electrical 307 229 3.5 0.0 96.5 78 SOURCE: Calculated from NSF unpublished data.

Next: APPENDIX C: EMPLOYMENT TRENDS AMONG SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS WITH GRADUATE DEGREES »
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Are we producing too many PhDs? Does the current graduate education system adequately prepare science and engineering students for today's marketplace? How do foreign students enter the picture? What should be the PhD of the future? These and other questions are addressed in this book by a blue-ribbon panel of scientists and engineers. Recommendations are aimed at creating a new PhD that would retain the existing strengths of the current system while substantially increasing the information available, the potential versatility of students, and the career options afforded to them by their PhD education.

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