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'I:
Catted for Selecting
Inquiry -Centered Science
Cumcutun' Mat:enats
In schools including good schools all over the
world, we have come to accept certain performances as
signals of knowledge or understanding. If you answer
questions on a multiple-choice test in a certain way, or
carry out a problem set in a specif ed manner, you wid
be credited with understanding. No one ever asks the
question, "But do you really understand ?"
Howard Garclner, The Unschooled Mind, 1991
School districts throughout the
country observe a unique tradition every few years: the review and
selection of curriculum materials. The science materials adoption
committee, charged with the task of reviewing elementary science
curriculum materials, invites publishers to submit their materials
for consideration. Some publishers respond by supplying sets of at-
tractively iTIustratecI, full-color elementary textbooks, sometimes
with optional videotapes, vicleo~lisks, or computer software. Other
publishers offer a very different kind of elementary science pro
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The Nuts and
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gram: a series of inquiry-centered science modules. The modular
nature of these materials allows teachers or school districts to build
their own unique curriculum by using a combination of modules
from one or more of the different programs available.
How can the science materials adoption committee choose
among all these different products? Are there any guidelines that
the committee can use to make this job easier?
The purpose of this chapter is to present three sets of well-
tested criteria that materials adoption committees can use as they
review elementary science curriculum materials. The first set con-
cerns pedagogical appropriateness. This category encompasses the
following key questions: 1) Do the materials address the important
goals of elementary science teaching and learning? 2) Are inquiry
and activity the basis of learning experiences? 3) Are the instruc-
tional approaches consonant with the goals of the program?
The second set includes information about science content. Cri-
teria in this category cover whether the materials are scientifically
accurate and whether they are developmentally appropriate. The
third set concerns presentation of information and format. These cri-
teria refer to the clarity of the information en c] how it is presented
in the written materials. All three sets of criteria are based on a
chart used for reviewing curriculum materials developed by the
National Science Resources Center, which is presented at the end
Of this chapter. These criteria are consistent with the National Sci-
ence Education Standards. The following sections explain the cri-
teria included on this chart.
Criteria for fudging Pedagogical Appropriateness
Pedagogical appropriateness is a broad subject, covering many as-
pects of teaching. This discussion emphasizes three areas: ad-
dressing the goals of elementary science teaching and learning, fo-
cusing on inquiry and activity as the basis of learning experiences,
and using an effective instructional approach.
Addressing the Goals of Elementary Science Teaching and Learning
1. Do the materials focus on concrete experiences with science
phenomena? As discussed in Chapters 1 and 2, building students'
conceptual understanding requires ample opportunity for students
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Cntena for Selecting
Inquiry-Centered Science
Curriculum Matenals
A teacher uses a crzterza checklist to
evaluate an inquiry-centered science
module.
to work directly with science
phenomena. Through hands-
on, inquiry-centered experi-
ences, students build their
knowleclge base.
2. Do the materials en-
able children to investigate
important science concepts
in depth over an extended
period of time? The materi-
als should give students an
opportunity to study a single
subject and its relatecl con-
cepts in clepth. For example,
in a Gleason moLlule about
butterflies, key concepts will
include the life cycle of a but-
terfly and its stages. Further-
more, teachers need to teach
lessons from the science
module at least two times a
week for six to eight weeks,
depending on the grade level, to achieve the appropriate level of
depth.
3. Do the curriculum materials contribute to the development
of scientific reasoning and problem-solving skills? If the materials
are to accomplish this goal, process skills must be introducecl in a
logical and developmentally appropriate progression. For example,
in the early primary grades (grades 1 and 2), children benefit *om
focusing on observing, measuring, and identifying properties of
concrete objects and organisms, such as butterflies, or of easily old
servable phenomena, such as weather. In gracles 3 through 5, chil-
dren can begin to deal with more complex phenomena, such as
electricity, and learn to seek evidence and recognize patterns and
cycles. BY the time children reach grade 6~ they are ready to begin
J J tJ ' J
designing their own controlled experiments.
4. Do the materials stimulate students' interest and relate sci-
ence learning to daily life? Science programs should help students
65
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become more acute observers of their world, better able to un-
derstancl phenomena and to identify patterns. For example, stu-
dents may begin to realize that the caterpillars crawling in their
back yard in spring are part of the life cycle of butterflies. In mak-
ing these connections, students are well on their way to seeing and
appreciating the relevance of science to everyday life.
To stimulate this kind of interest, the science program shouIcl
make an explicit effort to include materials students find intrinsi-
cally interesting, as well as questions students can investigate on
their own. Then, students may choose to react a book on the sub
. ~ . . .
ect or perform a come science acovlty.
5. Do the matenals build conceptual understanding over sev-
eral lessons through a logical sequence of related activities? To
build conceptual understanding, the curriculum materials must
have a well-defined, logical story line and engage students in activ-
ities that build on one another in a related sequence. For example,
in the second-gracle Full Option Science System (FOSS) module
Pebbles, Sand, and Silt, students begin their study of earth materials
by investigating the properties of rocks. Then, they explore a spe-
cific kind of rock river rock-that contains earth materials of dif-
ferent sizes. Next, students investigate how people use earth mate-
rials to construct objects; they make rubbings from sandpaper,
sculptures from sand, jewelry from clay, and bricks from clay soil.
The module concludes with an investigation of soil, which is made
of the earth materials students have already investigated.
In addition, as children mature, the amount of information
they are expected to master, as well as its complexity, shouIcl in-
crease. The curriculum matrix, the framework for the science pro-
gram, will tell the committee whether the program is designed in
this way. For example, in the Science ant! Technology for Children
(STC) program, children study Electra c Circuits in fourth grade en cl
Magnets and Motors in sixth grade. The fourth-grade module fo-
cuses on the basic principles of electricity, while the sixth-gra~le
module shows how electricity and magnetism work together in a
motor. Providing children with a working knowledge of electricity
before they begin Magnets and Motors allows them to expand their
knowledge en cl reach for a higher level of unclerstanding as they
grow older.
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Criteria for Selecting
Inquiry-Centered Science
Curriculum Matenals
6. Does the instructional sequence include opportunities to
assess children's prior knowledge and experience? An effective
way to ensure that this issue is being considered is to look for evi-
clence of the learning cycle in the program. As discussed in Chap-
ter 2, the learning cycle encourages students to focus, explore, reflect,
and apply as they study science. During the focus stage, students
have an opportunity to share what they already know about a sub-
ject and what they would like to learn. Students' responses will in-
form the teacher of the students' prior knowledge and experience
and about whether they have misconceptions or particular inter-
ests that need to be addressed. In many curriculum programs,
there are opportunities to refer to students' prior knowledge as
- 1- 1
they progress through the learning module.
Focusing on Inquiry and Activity as the Basis of
Learning Expenences
1. Does the material focus on student inquiry and engage stu-
dents in the processes of science? While students are working on
inquiry-centered activities, the processes of science should be evi-
(lent. Examples of these processes include observing and recogniz-
ing noticeable changes in objects or phenomena, grouping objects
by their properties, making scale drawings, making predictions,
and drawing conclusions from ciata.
2. Does the material provide opportunities for students to
gather and defend their own evidence and express their results in
a variety of ways? Young children can gather evidence through ob-
servations, and they can defend their observations verbally, in writ-
ing, in clrawings, through simple graphs, or through dramatic pre-
sentations. Students in fifth and sixth grade have opportunities to
engage in these activities as they begin planning and designing
their own investigations. Older children should continue to have
the option of expressing their results in a variety of ways by mak-
ing graphs or tables, through expository writing, or by developing
dramatic presentations, for example.
Using an Effective Instructional Approach
1. Does the material include a balance of student-directed
and teacher-facilitated activities as well as discussions? The com
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mittee should look for evidence that both student-directed and
teacher-facilitatecT activities are part of the program. Both ap-
proaches are important, because students need opportunities not
only to pursue their own interests but also to learn concepts with
the help of the teacher. Effective programs offer time for indivicI-
ual and small-group explorations of science phenomena, as well as
for explorations and discussions guided by the teacher to ensure
that students have certain basic experiences and that knowledge is
being synthesizer! en c! unclerstood.
2. Does the matenal incorporate effective strategies for Me
teacher and/or students to use in assessing student learning? As
will be seen in Chapter 8, assessments in inquiry-centerecl science
programs cliffer from those in traditional ones because they stress
the importance of using a variety of assessments. For example, stu-
dents may perform activities similar to those clone in the module,
complete a writing assignment, or complete a paper-ancl-penci}
test to demonstrate what they have learnecl. These different kinds
of assessments provide teachers with ample information about
what students learned during the module anti whether learning
goals were met.
3. Does the teacher's guide suggest opportunities for inte-
grating science with other areas of the curriculum? Science should
be integrated with other areas of the curriculum. During the
kindergarten and first-grade Insights module Living Things, for ex-
ample, chilclren observe plants and animals both outdoors en cl in
a classroom plant terrarium and then write stories about their ex-
periences, read books about terraria, and draw pictures of the
trees they observe. These activities connect science to language
arts and art. In a fifth-gracle FOSS moclule entitled Variables, stu-
clents apply mathematics skills to science by graphing the number
of swings a pendulum will make in a unit of time. In a second- and
third-gracle Insights module entitled Liquids, the teacher may in-
vite a Red Cross worker, a nurse, or an emergency medical techni-
cian to the class to talk about clrinkable, nondrinkable, en cl poison-
ous liquids, which creates a link to social studies.
4. Do students have opportunities to work collaboratively and
alone? Corporate lea(lers have stressed the importance of teaching
young people how to work in a team and to make decisions by con
68
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Cntena for Selecting
Inquiry-Centered Science
Curriculum Matenals
sensus. For example, in the STC unit Balancing and Weighing, sec-
ond-graders work in pairs as they explore the relationship between
balance and weight. Teamwork allows students to learn group
problem-solving strategies and to work with members of the class
they might not normally seek out. After numerous experiences
working together, students then work incliviclually to construct a
mobile. This activity provides students with time to better under-
stand the concepts.
Criteria for Judging Science Content
The following criteria address content issues that need to be con-
sidered by the science materials adoption committee.
I. Is the science content current ant! accurately represented?
To be useful, the scientific information in the program must be ac-
curate and reflect current scientific knowledge.
2. Does the content emphasize scientific inquiry? The vision
presenter! in the National Science Education Standards requires that
students engage in scientific inquiry to develop their understan(l-
ing of science concepts. Eviclence of scientific inquiry includes
"opportunities for students to ask questions, plan anti conduct in-
vestigations, use appropriate tools en cl techniques to gather data,
think critically and logically to clevelop explanations based on
what they have observecl, construct en cl analyze alternative expla-
nations, and communicate scientific arguments."
3. Is the content of the science program consistent with the Na-
tional Science Education Standards? The Standarcis specify the
knowledge and skills children at various levels should acquire in
physical science, life science, and earth and space science. They also
include information about what children should know in the areas
of science and technology and of the history and nature of science.
Finally, the Standards include information about how students can
learn to use scientific knowledge to make informed decisions.
4. Does the background material for teachers address the sci-
ence content that is taught, as well as common misconceptions?
The material should include the major points the teacher needs to
know to teach the lesson and should address common misconcep-
tions. For example, many students think that because oil is viscous,
it also must be dense, but this is not the case. Such misconceptions
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The Nuts and
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must be addressed in the materials so that teachers know how to
deal with these issues when they come up in class.
5. Is the treatment of content appropriate for the grade level?
Developmental appropriateness is an important issue that must be
addressed in evaluating elementary science materials. Both the
depth of treatment and the content must be appropriate for each
grade. For example, third-graclers can observe the life cycle of
plants, but they are generally not yet ready to design controlled ex-
periments to test the variables that affect plant growth. That level of
complexity is more appropriate for sixth-graclers. Similarly, second-
graders can understand that cars move fast or slowly, but they are
not ready to understand acceleration and Newton's Laws of Motion.
6. Is the content free of bias? The information presented in the
program should reflect different viewpoints and avoid personal opin-
ions and biases. If there are several sicles to societal issues involv-
ing science and technology, all perspectives should be adclressed.
7. Is the writing style for students and teachers interesting
and engaging, and is scientific language used appropriately? Any
subject becomes more interesting when it is well-written, and sci-
ence is no exception. Students will develop a creeper unclerstanc3-
ing of a subject if the language is engaging and if scientific lan-
guage is used appropriately.
S. Is scientific vocabulary used to facilitate understanding
rather than as an end in itself? Learning scientific terms out of con-
text does not help students understand science. If these terms are
put into a context, define accurately and appropriately, and user]
consistently, however, students will be able to understancl them.
9. Is science represented as an enterprise connected to soci-
ety? Opportunities for students to relate science to the real world
enhance their understancling of social issues. For example, as sci-
entists raise concerns about global warming and other environ-
mental issues, it is important for students to be knowledgeable
about the underlying scientific concepts.
Criteria for fudging Presentation and Format
The following criteria address issues related to the presentation
and format of the material.
1. Are the print materials for students well-written, develop
70
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Cntena for Selecting
Inquiry-centered Science
Curriculum Matenals
mentally appropriate, and compelling in content? The committee
needs to assess whether the materials are written at the right level
for the designated grade and are interesting and informative for
children.
2. Are the directions for implementing activities clear in both
the teacher's guide and student materials? For example, the in-
structions should include step-by-step directions that are accurate
and easy to follow, suggestions for time limits, and the proper safe-
t,v precautions.
3. Are the suggestions for instructional delivery in the
teacher's guide adequate? The curriculum materials should in-
clude information related to procedural techniques. For example,
do the instructions provide detailed information about the best
way to pour liquids or mix solids? Are instructions about the best
way to use a hand lens explained in both words and pictures? This
information helps ensure that the students will get accurate results
after they complete the experiment or investigation.
4. Are the materials free of ethnic, cultural, racial, economic,
age, and gender bias? Indications that these issues have been ad-
dressed include pictures and photographs of children of different
ethnic backgrounds, frequent references to the active involvement
of girls in science investigations, and acknowledgment of the cul-
tural diversity that can be found in many classrooms nationwide.
5. Are appropriate strategies provided to meet the special
needs of diverse populations? The curriculum materials should
acknowledge the validity of different learning styles and include
different kinds of learning activities, such as those that emphasize
visual learning, auditory learning, and tactile learning. In addi-
tion, the materials must take into consideration students with
physical disabilities and those with limited proficiency in English.
6. Are lists of materials for each activity provided, as well as a
complete set of materials and information about reasonably priced
replacement materials? Teachers cannot teach hands-on science
curriculum units without adequate materials. Therefore, iris essen-
tial that the necessary materials be easily obtained and that the mod-
ules include information about ordering replacement materials.
7. Are safety precautions included where needed? Attention
to safety issues is imperative. For example, if students are going to
71
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The Nuts and
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be working with chemicals or heat, the use of goggles should be in-
clu(led in the directions and any accompanying pictures.
S. Are instructions for using laboratory equipment and mate-
rials clear and adequate? Clear and precise instructions for using
scientific equipment will ensure successful lessons, especially for
teachers new to hands-on science teaching. The instructions also
shouIcl include necessary safety precautions.
Using the Criteria
Curriculum materials committees often find it useful to convert
criteria such as those discusser! above into a checklist. The advan-
tage of a checklist is that at a glance, reviewers can tell what they
should be looking for.
Figure 5-1 shows how the criteria discussed in this chapter
can be converted into an easy-to-use checklist for reviewers. A too!
such as this one can make the job of reviewing materials and mak-
ing decisions about them much easier.
72
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Criteria for Selecting
Inquiry-centered Science
Curriculum Materials
Criteria for fudging Inquiry-Centered
Science Curriculum Materials
Criteria for fudging Pedagogical Appropriateness
Addressing the Goals of Elementary Science Teaching and Learning
Do the materials focus on concrete experiences with science
phenomena?
2. Do the materials enable children to investigate important science
concepts in depth over an extended period of time?
3. Do the curriculum materials contribute to the development of scientific
reasoning and problem-solving skills?
4. Do the materials stimulate students' interest and relate science learning
to daily life?
5. Do the materials build conceptual understanding over several lessons
through a logical sequence of related activities?
6. Does the instructional sequence include opportunities to assess
children's prior knowledge and experience?
Focusing on Inquiry and Activity as the Basis of Learning Experiences
Does the material focus on student inquiry and engage students in the
processes of science?
2. Does the material provide opportunities for students to gather and
defend their own evidence and express their results in a variety of ways?
Using an Effective Instructional Approach
Does the material include a balance of student-directed and teacher-
facilitated activities as well as discussions?
2. Does the material incorporate effective strategies for the teacher
and/or students to use in assessing student learning?
3. Does the teacher's guide suggest opportunities for integrating science
with other areas of the curriculum?
4. Do students have opportunities to work collaboratively and alone?
Figure 5-1
continued on next page
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Criteria for Judging Inquiry-Centered
Science Curriculum Materials continued
Criteria for fudging Science Content
1. Is the science content current and accurately represented?
2. Does the content emphasize scientific inquiry?
3. Is the content of the science program consistent with the National
Science Education Standards?
4. Does the background material for teachers address the science content
that is taught, as well as common misconceptions?
5. Is the treatment of content appropriate for the grade level?
6. Is the content free of bias?
7. Is the writing style for students and teachers interesting and engaging,
and is scientific language used appropriately?
8. Is scientific vocabulary used to facilitate understanding rather than as an
end in itself?
9. Is science represented as an enterprise connected to society?
Criteria for Judging Presentation and Format
Are the print materials for students well-written, developmentally
appropriate, and compelling in content?
2. Are the directions for implementing activities clear in both the teacher's
guide and student materials?
3. Are the suggestions for instructional delivery in the teacher's guide adequate?
4. Are the materials free of ethnic, cultural, racial, economic, age, and
gender bias?
5. Are appropriate strategies provided to meet the special needs of
diverse populations?
6. Are lists of materials for each activity provided, as well as a complete set of
materials and information about reasonably priced replacement materials?
7. Are safety precautions included where needed?
8. Are instructions for using laboratory equipment and materials clear and
adequate?
~:'.;~:~.,f.'-.:,:.-. it'
74
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Cntena for Selecting
Inquiry-Centered Science
Curriculum Matenals
Three sets of criteria are useful in evaluating elementary science
curriculum materials.The first set concerns pedagogical appropriate-
ness, which encompasses strategies for building conceptual under-
standing, teaching science as inquiry, and applying effective instruc-
tional strategies.The second set concerns science content, and the
third, presentation and format
The curriculum materials should be consistent with the National
Science Education Standards.
Converting criteria into a checklist for reviewers is an effective way to
evaluate curriculum materials and make sound curriculum decisions.
For Further Reading
Brooks, J. G., and M. G. Brooks. 1993. In Search of Understanding: The Case for Con-
structivist Classrooms. Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Cur-
riculum Development.
Bybee, R. W., and l. D. McInerney, eds. 1995. Redesigning the Curriculum. Colorado
Springs: BSCS.
Champagne, A. B., and L. E. Hornig, eds. 1987. This Year in School Science 1986:
The Science Curriculum. Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science.
Gardner, H. 1991. The Unschooled Mind. New York: BasicBooks.
Glatthorn, A. A. 1994. Developing a Quality Curriculum. Alexandria, Va.: Associa-
tion for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Harlen, W. S. 1989. Developing Science in the Primary Classroom. Portsmouth, N.FI.:
Heinemann Educational Books, Inc.
Loucks-Horsley, S., R. Kapitan, M. D. Carlson, P. I. Kuerbis, R. C. Clark, G. M.
Melle, T. P. Sachse, and E. Walton. 1990. Elementary School Sciencefor the 'pus.
Andover, Mass.: The NETWO1 - Inc., and Alexandria, Va.: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Marzano, R J. 1992. A Different Rind of Classroom: Teaching with Dimensions of Learning.
Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
National Research Council. 1996. National Science Education Standards. Washing-
ton, D.C.: National Academy Press.
National Science Resources Center. 1996. Resources for Teaching Elementary School
Science. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
75
Representative terms from entire chapter:
science curriculum
