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Professional Development
for Inquiry-Centered
Science
If teachers are given ch~ces~re Awed to make decisions-
are, in short, treated as both professionals and human
beings better teaching and better programs result.
When teachers are not "locked" into programs- are not
tied into textbook-structured courses of study" their class-
rooms are alive and stimulating.
- Ronald B. Jackson, Something of Value, 1973
With the curriculum selection
process under way, it is time for the district to begin to organize the
professional development component of the program. The initial
goal of professional development is to introduce teachers to in-
quiry-centered science teaching and familiarize them with the spe-
cific science modules they will be teaching. This can be accom-
plished most effectively by creating a collegial environment in
which teachers feel comfortable sharing ideas and working closely
with experienced teachers.
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These don't sound like revolutionary ideas, but in fact they
challenge some basic premises on which the American public
school system is based. Traditionally, teachers have been assignee!
a classroom and have taught their students alone, conferring with
few people and making their own decisions about how to imple-
ment the curriculum. Many teachers have become accustomed to
this autonomy, and some even equate it with professionalism.
Car! Glickman calls this situation the "one-room school" s,vn-
drome, the tradition of isolationism created back in the days when
teachers literally worked alone in their schoolhouses without any
contact with other teachers. This tradition has lingered, and it
manifests itself in today's schools by the tendency not to "connect
staff for purposes of sharing expertise, solving problems, and pur-
suing improvement." Given this context, a second, long-term goal
of professional development is to foster the development of an en-
vironment in which teachers can learn and grow professionally.
This chapter discusses strategies that can be used to achieve
these two goals. The chapter begins with a discussion of the char-
acteristics of effective professional development programs for all
teachers, from the novice to those in the "competent" stage to ex-
pert teachers. It concludes with a discussion of some strategies for
professional development that have been successful in school dis-
tricts throughout the country.
Characteristics of an Effective Professional
Development Program
The National Science Education Standards includes as part of its vision
for science education reform increased opportunities for teachers
to grow professionally throughout their careers. According to the
Standards, "Teachers should have opportunities for structured re-
flection on their teaching practice with colleagues, for collaborative
curriculum planning, and for active participation in professional
teaching and scientific networks. The challenge of professional de-
velopment for teachers is to create optimal collaborative learning
situations in which the best sources of expertise are linkecl with the
experiences and current needs of the teachers."2
Research and experience have shown that an effective way to
introduce teachers to an inquiry-centere(1 curriculum is to have
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them experience each module in much the same way their students
will. This approach is based on the assumption that the construc-
tivist learning mode! is valid for adults as well as for children.
Through the experience of working with the materials, discovering
how the investigations build on one another, and encountering
their own difficulties with the equipment or the concepts, teachers
not only prepare themselves to teach the module but also realize
that they can learn along with their students. Teachers who have
macle this discovery begin to rethink their role in the classroom and
view themselves less as lecturers and more as learning facilitators.
The following list highlights strategies that have been effec-
tive in helping school districts create innovative professional de-
velopment programs. These strategies will also help districts
achieve the goals outlined in the Standards.
1. Provide continuous and sustained support for professional
development. School district administrators need to send a clear
message of support to teachers. The support must go beyond
rhetoric and take the form of stressing science as a basic in the
school curriculum and of providing teachers with a "safety net" so
that they have time to grow professionally. Teachers should have the
opportunity to experiment with different teaching strategies and to
make mistakes without fear of consequences, with administrators
recognizing that this is an essential part of their personal learning
process. This learning process is not smooth, and nobody will be-
come an expert overnight. Teachers need to have time to reflect on
the new ideas that are being introduced and to assimilate them at
their own pace. They also need to be aware that because science is
considered a basic, they will be evaluated for their science teaching.
Other forms of support include providing teachers with the
necessary materials on time, offering graduate credit for attending
professional development classes, verbally praising teachers' ac-
complishments, and publishing their achievements in school pub-
lications and the local media.
2. Provide teachers win time to engage in professional de-
velopment activities. It is crucial that administrators recognize the
key role teachers play in implementing a science program and give
them the time they need to become proficient. This means grant-
ing teachers time to participate in professional development activ
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Professional Development
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ities during the school day. Unfortunately, given the way time is or-
ganizect in the schools, this is no easy task.
Program directors and teachers need to be creative in the
ways they address this issue. For example, teachers could use the
time they have while their students are attending art, music, or
physical education classes for their own professional development;
arrange to have science when an experienced colleague could visit
the class to assist; or invite parent volunteers to help with materi-
als management so that the teacher has more time to devote to
working with students on substantive issues. Other strategies in-
clude communicating electronically with other teachers to discuss
science teaching strategies en c] encouraging students to assist with
materials management so that the teacher can work with other stu-
dents who have questions or need special help.
Teachers also have to be aware that involvement in the science
program may require them to make additional time commitments.
For example, they may need to attend summer institutes or after-
schoo] meetings. The incentive to give extra time will be greater if
teachers see the administration working hard to make the school
clay more flexible to accommodate effective science instruction.
3. Create an environment of collegiality and collaboration.
Teachers can benefit tremendously from professional relation-
ships that enable them to fee! comfortable sharing ideas, acknowI-
edging difficulties, and solving problems they encounter in the
classroom. AIthough a certain amount of discussion usually takes
place informally among teachers, the best way to foster profes-
sional relationships is to institute some formal ways for teachers to
interact. In formalizing such discussions, it is crucial that experi-
enced teachers assume a leadership role. Discussions can wander
unless leaders are present to facilitate them. One obvious way to
formalize discussions is to address issues related to inquiry-cen-
tered science teaching at faculty meetings. For example, in
Huntsville, Alabama, teachers found that their discussions during
faculty meetings helped enhance relationships among teachers,
making these meetings richer learning experiences.
Many (listricts have ensured that there will be opportunities
for teachers to share experiences by scheduling at least two meet-
ings each semester where they can discuss their progress in imple
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Tea chars and a scientist brights collaborate to construct a motor
during a workshop on a sixth-grade module.
meeting inquiry-centered science modules. Such meetings help
new or inexperienced teachers become more comfortable sharing
problems and better able to accept guidance from their more ex-
perienced colleagues.
4. Incorporate the change process into the professional de-
velopment design. In Chapter 4, we explained the stages that
stakeholders typically go through as they become familiar with an
innovation. Teachers undergo similar stages. For example, their
initial reaction may be indifference to the innovation; this is fol-
lowed by a concern about how it is going to affect them personal-
{y. As their familiarity with the program grows, teachers become
more invested in the program and more interested in learning
how to use it comfortably. At the final stage, teachers are con-
cerned primarily with how the new program is affecting their stu-
clents and with developing strategies to make the program even
more effective.
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Those responsible for designing the staff development pro-
gram need to be aware of these stages and of the position of their
teachers on the continuum of change. For example, if teachers in
a particular district are at the "indifferent" stage, the emphasis of
the professional development program should be on familiarizing
them with the goals of inquiry-centered science. If teachers are con-
cerned about who will be responsible for collecting the materials
needed for the lessons, program designers need to address this
issue and suggest how the materials wit] be provided and managed.
In most districts, teachers will be at different places along the
continuum. Some teachers may already be comfortable teaching in-
quiry-centered science, while others may be afraid even to open the
kit. In situations like this, districts may consider "pairing" a more ex-
perienced teacher with a less experienced one. This approach has
been used in the East Baton Rouge Parish Public School System; ex-
perience there has shown that pairing increases the confidence and
comfort level of the less experienced teacher.
Initiating Professional Development at the
Right Time in the Right Way
Using the strategies mentioned above as a guide, the district must
next consider when to begin the professional development pro-
gram, who should be involved in the planning, and at what level of
professional development to aim the program. The best time to de-
velop a professional development program is usually during the six
months before inquiry-centered modules are introduced in the dis-
trict. As part of the professional development plan, the school dis-
trict needs to determine how many schools are going to be phased
in over a five-year period, and at what pace. Most districts have
found that it is better to start with the teachers in a limited number
of elementary schools and then to add more schools in each sul}
sequent year. Depending on the size of the district, it takes between
three and five years to introduce all the elementary school teachers
in the district to all the science modules and for teachers to become
reasonably comfortable teaching science through inquiry. In addi-
tion, fine-tuning pedagogical techniques, learning more science
content, and integrating the science module with other areas of the
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curriculum are issues that need to be a continuing part of the
teachers' lifelong professional development.
The time frame for introducing the professional clevelop-
ment program is a complex issue related to the size of the district,
the level of resources available, and the current capacity of the clis-
trict. All these factors must be taken into consideration so that dis-
tricts realize their long-term goal: to establish an effective,
thoughtful, and comprehensive professional development pro-
gram. Pressure to complete implementation should not interfere
with realizing this goal.
It's also important to ensure that teachers become involved
in the planning of the professional development program and that
they become key players in the decision-making process. By mak-
ing teachers partners in the planning process, administrators can
go a Tong way toward building trust en cl creating a collegial at-
mosphere in which all participants acknowlecige that they have
much to learn from each other.
Levels of Professional Development
In (resigning an effective professional development program, it's
important to untlerstan(1 the phases that teachers typically under-
go in their journey to become highly experienced elementary sci-
ence teachers en cl the kinds of professional development pro-
grams appropriate for each phase. Research has shown that most
teachers go through at least three phases: novice, competent, and
expert.3 The three programs described below are tailored for each
of these phases.
Phase I: The Introductory Program
An effective professional development program for novice teach-
ers begins with an intensive introduction to inquiry-centered sci-
ence, often in the form of a two- or four-week institute held the
summer before the new curriculum is scheduled to be introducecl
in the classroom. At the institute, teachers become familiar with
the science modules they will be teaching during the first six
months (usually one or two modules) and discuss basic issues, such
as managing the materials anti organizing the lesson so that it can
be completed in a timely fashion. In a relaxed setting with their
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Professional Development
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Science
peers, teachers can share common concerns, including the likeli-
hood of increased noise in the classroom and how to relinquish a
little control and let the children pursue their own interests dur-
ing the science lesson. Teachers can help students pursue their
own interests by providing them with opportunities to work inde-
pendently. For some teachers, encouraging independent work
may create a new set of challenges about how to maintain order in
the classroom.
Teachers new to inquiry-centered science are especially con-
cerned about classroom management issues such as these, because
one of the greatest challenges of teaching science through inquiry
is creating an environment conducive to interactive learning.
How, many teachers wonder, does one create a setting where chil-
dren fee] challenged, eager to ask questions, and ready to explore
their ideas with their classmates? Experienced teachers have found
that establishing rules carefully is key; children must understand
that they can talk but not shout, that accidents with the materials
may happen but they should try to be careful, and that although
they will be working independently or in groups, they must be pre-
pared to listen to the teacher at appropriate times.
It's hard for many teachers to give up their traditional ideas
of an orderly classroom. Consequently, even after attending an ini-
tial institute, teachers tend to revert to their old teaching strate-
gies. They may be reluctant to divide the class into groups that are
working inclependently. The first time they teach a module, they
will probably rely heavily on the teacher's guide en cl skip many of
the optional activities. These behaviors indicate that teachers are
still learning how to use the materials and have not yet assimilated
them and made them their own. This level of expertise is often re-
ferred to as mechanical use.
It's essential that teachers new to inquiry have support at
their schools throughout the school year. Particularly beneficial at
this stage are opportunities for mentoring sessions with more ex-
perienced teachers.
Phase II: The Competent Stage
When teachers begin to fee] comfortable with the materials and
are ready to modify the lessons in a science module to reflect their
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students' particular needs and interests, they are at the competent
stage. It takes most teachers at least five years to reach this level of
proficiency. At this stage, the professional development program
takes on a different cast. Teachers are now interested in exploring
in greater depth such topics as constructivist theory and the learn-
ing cycle, cooperative learning techniques, assessment strategies,
en cl how to integrate science into other areas of the curriculum.
Many teachers are also interested in learning more about the sci-
ence content of the moclules they are teaching. At this stage, the
school should provide opportunities for small discussion groups
for teachers engaged in teaching inquiry-centered science.
After being involved in these different professional develop-
ment programs, teachers may begin to develop their own ideas for
additional activities and extensions and look for other ways to
modify the lessons. They may begin experimenting with different
kinds of assessments and, if students are interested, with conduct-
ing a long-term class research project.
Phase III: The Expert Stage
The final phase in a teacher's professional development is the ex-
pert stage. If we could peek into a highly experienced teacher's sci-
ence classroom, we wouIcl notice a few distinguishing features im-
mecliately. First, there is the sound of "organized noise" in the
classroom. Chilciren may be moving about, discussing ideas with
classmates, and taking turns gathering materials at the distribution
center. The teacher is moving around, too, listening to students'
i(leas, answering questions, and asking questions to help groups
take the next step in completing an experiment or organizing re-
sults. By now, the teacher is not disturbed by the cup of water that
spilled or the soil on the desktops. There is energy and excitement
in the room.
Such teachers have become what is called "expert." They
have reacher! this level through a combination of time, experi-
ence, their own enthusiasm, and effective professional develops
meet, both in the school and outside. According to the National
Science Education Standards, "successful teachers are skilled oh
servers of students, as well as knowledgeable about science en cl
how it is learned. Teachers match their actions to the particular
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Science
needs of the students, decicling when and how to guide when to
clemand more rigorous grappling by the students, when to provide
information, and when to connect students with other sources."4
The goal of professional development is to raise all teachers in
a school district to the expert level. Doing so requires time, com-
mitment, and energy on the part of both teachers and administra-
tors. The next section explores a few strategies for professional de-
velopment programs that have helped teachers grow professionally.
Strategies for Change
The professional development strategies listed below have been
used in many school districts throughout the country. These
strategies have been tested in a variety of settings en c! have proven
to be effective in introducing large numbers of teachers to inquiry-
centered science.
Lead Teachers
Many districts have initiated their professional development pro-
grams by beginning with a small group of teachers, called lead
teachers or mentor teachers, who have demonstratecl interest and ex-
pertise in inquiry-centered science teaching. This group is usually
selected by administrators to represent each grade level in the dis-
trict. Identifying and training this group of lead teachers is a key
step in this professional development strategy.
Lead teachers can serve a variety of roles. In some districts,
such as Montgomery County, Marylancl, and the East Baton Rouge
Parish Public School System in Louisiana, a cadre of lead teachers
is responsible for conducting professional development activities
for other teachers in the district. Those teachers also assist with
materials support issues and are available to respond to questions
that other teachers have about the program. Some hold work-
shops at faculty meetings. Others provide leadership at dis-
trictwide institutes. Lead teachers may often be called upon to
field-test new modules, serve on curriculum selection committees,
work with administrators to expand or modify selected modules,
or develop new approaches to student assessment.
Although the lead-teacher strategy has been successful in
many districts, some teachers and administrators have encoun
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tered obstacles in their efforts to implement it. For example, in
Huntsville, Alabama, teachers likecl being introduced to the moc3-
ules by fellow teachers, but they did not want to view a fellow
teacher as a supervisor. In addition, some administrators have
been unable to provide lead teachers with the time to actually
"lead." These teachers fincI themselves so busy with their own
classroom responsibilities that they don't have time to work with
other teachers. Without time to mentor other teachers, lead teach-
ers can serve only a limited function.
Schools nationwide are encountering the problem of teach-
ers not having time for professional development. Time will con-
tinue to be an issue in a climate of budget cutting, especially in
communities where parents exert pressure on the system to limit
the number of professional days for teachers. Administrators and
lead teachers committed to this approach must be aware that they
will be grappling with such issues as they strive to implement the
science program.
Partnerships Between SchooZ Districts and Research Scientists
In the 1960s, scientists' involvement in professional clevelopment
consisted largely of having scientists go into the classroom and
take over the science class for a specified number of lessons. To no
one's surprise, teachers felt intimidated by the scientists, and the
scientists often didn't know how to present their subject so that it
made sense to their young audiences.
To overcome these concerns while still taking advantage of
scientists' expertise, many districts have developecl innovative
forms of teacher-scientist collaborations. For example, the Pasade-
na Unified School District Science Program (formerly known as
Project SEED), a teacher-scientist partnership between the Pasade-
na Unifiecl School District and the California Institute of Technol-
ogy (CalTech), has perfected a strategy in which lead teachers
work collaboratively with scientists to introduce teachers to science
curriculum modules. Scientists also conduct sessions with lead
teachers at institutes, where the scientists serve as content special-
ists or in an advisory role, suggesting ways to bring inquiry to the
classroom. CalTech scientists also attend follow-up meetings with
teachers, where they are available to answer questions teachers
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have after working with the modules. This collaborative approach
has also been adopted by City Science, a partnership between the
San Francisco Unified School District and the University of Cali-
fornia at San Francisco.
Some districts, such as Montgomery County, Marylancl, have
provided the scientists with some training before they begin their
work with elementary school teachers. In a preliminary meeting,
scientists learn about the concerns of teachers and some peda-
gogical strategies. This training gives scientists important back-
ground knowledge about teachers, so it becomes easier for the sci-
entists to provide appropriate support and knowledge.
Scientists at other institutions, such as science museums, can
work with teachers in a similar way. For example, the Buffalo Mu-
seum of Science in New York has a partnership with the Buffalo
School District, where scientists are involved in professional devel-
opment activities and in establishing a centralized science materi-
als support center. The Franklin Institute, in Philadelphia, played
a key role in introducing Philadelphia's public schools to inquiry-
centered science.
Partnerships with Business and Industry
Successful partnerships can develop between school districts and
local industrial corporations. These corporations frequently have
expertise that can be shared with teachers. Some corporate spon-
sors, such as Hewlett-PackarcI, have created on-line computer net-
works to answer teachers' questions about the particular topics
their classes are investigating. Chapter 9 explores school partner-
ships with business and industry in more detail.
Some school districts incorporate combinations of these
models into their professional development programs. For exam-
ple, Montgomery County, Maryland, and Spokane, Washington,
use the lead-teacher approach but also make use of university sci-
entists for some portions of the professional development pro-
gram. Alternatively, a corporate partnership may assist lead teach-
ers by providing them with expertise in a particular subject area.
In these ways, school districts can modify these strategies to fit
their needs.
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Am_
. ~,~.~ ~
~ ~P- ~
Professional development is key to the success of the inquiry-centered
science program. Creating an environment of collegiali~cy and collabo-
ration, providing teachers with the time to learn, and designing the pro-
gram appropriately are among the strategies school districts have used
to ensure that the professional development program is effective.
Progressive levels of professional development can be designed for
teachers new to inquiry, for those at the intermediate stage, and for
those who have reached the expert level.
Several strategies, including the lead-teacher strategy, partnerships between
school districts and research scientists, and partnerships with business
and industry, have been used successfully in school districts nationwide.
For Further Reading
Calwelti, G., ed. 1993. Challenges and Achievements of American Education: 1993 Year-
book of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Alexandria,
Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Jackson, R. B. 1973. Something of Value: A Summary of Findings and Recommendations
for Improving Elementary Science in Massachusetts. Cambridge, Mass.: Com-
monwealth of Massachusetts.
Joyce, B., ed. 1990. Changing School Culture Through StaffDevelopment: 1990 Yearbook
of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Alexandria, Va.:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
National Research Council. 1996. National Science Education Standards. Washing-
ton, D.C.: National Academy Press.
National Research Council. 1996. The Role of Scientists in the ProfessionalDevelopment
of Teachers. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
Raizen, S. A., and A. M. Michelsohn, eds. 1994. The Future of Science in Elementary
Schools: Educating Prospective Teachers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Sigma Xi. 1994. Scientists,Educators, and NationalStandards: Action at the LocalLevel.
Research Triangle Park, N.C.: Sigma Xi.
Whitla, D. K, and D. C. Pinck. 1973. Essentially Elementary Science: A Report on the
Status of Elementary Science in Massachusetts Schools. Cambridge, Mass.: Office
of Instructional Research and Evaluation, in the Harvard Faculcy of Arts
and Sciences, and Harvard Graduate School of Education.
W. K Kellogg Foundation. 1993. How to Unravel Science Mysteries for Young Minds
Without Unraveling: A Summary of Lessons Learned. Battle Creek, Mich.: W. K
Kellogg Foundation.
88
Representative terms from entire chapter:
lead teachers
