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OCR for page 25
Heat Exposure and Burning Behavior
of Cabin Materials During an Aircraft
Post-Crash Fuel Fire
Constantine P. Sarkos*
ABSTRACT
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has conducted numerous full-scale aircraft
fire tests for the purpose of characterizing a post-crash cabin-fire environment and developing
improved criteria for fire testing cabin materials. The tests subjected aircraft fuselages to an
external fuel fire, usually adjacent to an opening in the fuselage. This paper reviews those tests.
Emphasis is on the heating conditions experienced by the fuselage skin and cabin materials near
an opening; the effect of wind and door openings on heat flux and cabin hazard development
arising from the fuel fire; the important cabin phenomena related to survival, such as
stratification of fire hazards and flashover; and hazard-time profiles and materials fire
involvement.
BACKGROUND
Aircraft fire safety involves both in-flight and post-crash fire considerations. Fatal or
uncontrollable in-flight fires are rare events; in fact, 30 years have passed since the last fatal
accidental in-flight fire involving a U.S. commercial transport. Therefore, fire-test criteria for
aircraft cabin materials, required by the FAA, are based primarily on post-crash fire conditions.
Practically all post-crash aircraft fires are initiated by the ignition of jet fuel released from the
damaged fuel system. Also, the relevancy of the fire performance of cabin materials to life
_ ~ , ~ ~
~ . · , ~ , · · · ~ · ~ , ~ i. r ~ · ~ ~ · . . __
safety Is most relevant In survivable accidents when the fuselage Is largely Intact. Hence, an
intact fuselage subjected to an external fuel fire represents a post-crash fire scenario in which
burning cabin materials may affect occupant escape.
Past accidents, experiment studies, and a knowledge of fuselage design all show that
a fuselage opening, perhaps a crash rupture or inadvertently opened emergency exit, provides
the earliest opportunity for fire to enter the cabin. This mode of fire penetration contrasts with
burnthrough of the fuselage shell. Burnthrough generally occurs later in time than when flame
penetration occurs directly through an opening. In the past, the FAA has conducted many full-
scale fire Bests, utilizing the aforementioned scenario, which has an external fuel fire adjacent
to an opening in an otherwise intact fuselage, to characterize post-crash cabin fires and to
develop improved fire-test criteria for cabin materials. This paper reviews those past FAA full-
scale fire tests.
*Fire Safety Branch, Federal Aviation Administration Technical Center, Atlantic City, New Jersey.
25
OCR for page 26
26
Imp roved Fire- and Smok;e-Resistant Materials
FULI'SCALE FIRE TESTS
Pool Fire
The heat flux created by a pool of burning jet fuel is dominated by intense thermal
radiation. For pool fires greater than about 3 in. diameter, the radiative heat flux is relatively
invariant and approximately 14 Btu/ft2 · s (Eklund and Sarkos, 1980~. The convective heat flux
is roughly 10-20 percent of the radiative component, depending of the size of the fire and other
factors, and is, consequently, of less importance.
Pool F~re/Fuselage Impact
One of the earliest experiments to measure the fuselage skin heating conditions arising
from an adjacent fuel fire utilized a titanium fuselage (Sarkos, 19711. The test configuration was
a 28-ft long titanium fuselage, ~ ~ feet in diameter, abutting a 20-square-foot fire pit. The heat
flux to the skin and flame temperature histories are shown in figures ~ and 2. During the test,
a firewhirl developed adjacent to the fuselage at the aft end. At 80 seconds, the firewhir!
unexpectedly moved to the forward end of the fuselage, where it lodged for 5-10 seconds, and
then returned to the aft end, where it remained until the cessation of the test. The heat-flux
measurements (total), which included the sum of the radiative and convective components,
reflected the behavior of the firewhirl. When the effect of the firewhirl was minimal (center
section), the heat flux fluctuated between 10 and 14 Btu/ft2 s, as expected. However, during the
period of greatest intensification of the firewhirl, the heat flux attained peals values of IS
Btu/ft2 s. The flame plume temperature measurements closely followed the trends exhibited by
the heat flux. Flame temperatures ranged from 1400-~800 °F when the effect of the firewhir!
was minimal but increased to as high as 2000 OF in the firewhirl. The swirling motion of the
firewhirl causes increased air entrainment, raising the air-to-fuel ratio and combustion efficiency.
Although the titanium skin was an effective fire barrier. it is noteworthy that a cabin flash fire
_ ,
. . ~ . . . . .. . ... ~ . , ... ~ . . .. ..
occurred at ~ minutes, caused by the ignition of combustible gases formed by the thermal
degradation of the cabin pressure sealant elastomer, which was bonder! to the interior of the
titanium skin, and of the thermal/acoustical fiberglass insulation.
Radiant Heating of Cabin through Fuselage Opening
As discussed earlier, the creation of a post-crash fuel fire at a fuselage rupture or door
opening provides the most immediate fire threat to the cabin interior. A series of experiments
was conducted in which fuselage models under zero wind conditions were subjected to a fuel fire
to determine the amount of radiation to the interior through a door opening (Eklund, 19781. The
models were essentially empty cylinders liner! with a ceramic fibrous insulation. Calorimeter
measurements were taken at two locations: (~) on the fuselage symmetry plane, at an elevation
of one-half of the doorway height, and (2) on the floor, midway between the doorway and
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Constantine P. Sarkos
2n
-
- 12
X
W 8
FIGURE 1 Titanium fi - stage incident heat flux.
2800~-
Z400
2000
w
3 160a
54 1 20C
g
ages
Penn
1 1 1 1 1 1 ~ ~ 1 1 1 1 1
i I I ~ 1 1
rr~-l~ Lot
· 1 FUSELAG E
. AFT CTR FWD
1
_ FIRE
_ PIT
_
40 60 80 100 120
TIME AFTER IGNITION (SECONDS)
TIME AFT`:R IGNITION tSISCONDIl'
FIGURE 2 Titanium fuselage fuel-fire flame temperature.
27
,.........
- LEGEND:
. _--FORWARD SECTION_
-AFT SECTION
. - CENTER SECTION
. . . . . . . .
~ ~ ~ ~ I ~ ~
FUSELAGE _
AFT CTR FWD _
_ . . . _ _
._ FIRE _
PIT _ _
166
zoo
symmetry plane. For external fuel fires, the heat flux measured at the symmetry plane and at
the floor was 1.8 Btu/ft2.s and 2.5 Btu/ft2 s, respectively. This study also developed the
equations for predicting the internal heat flux. The tests showed that the doorway could be
treated as a black body radiating heat at a temperature of 1874 OF. Figure 3 shows a
representation of the heat flux to the interior calculated from the derived equations. It is evident
that the high levels of radiative heat flux associated with the fuel fire will be confined to a small
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28
Improved Fire- arm Smoke-Resistant Materials
region near the doorway when there is no penetration of the fuel-fire flames through the
opening for example, under a zero wind condition. Thus, during the early stages of a fire the
thermal degradation and subsequent ignition of cabin interior materials will be very localized and
limited to the doorway vicinity if the fuel-fire flames do not enter the cabin.
/
/
Id/
~.~, ~
J: Btu/ft - ·ec:_ _ _ _ __V:
/ In FUEL PAN
1 ~"~/ ~
FIGURE 3 Theoretical radiative heat-flux profiles through a fuselage opening.
Effects of Wind on Cabin Heating
H
~////////////////'
A series of full-scale fire tests essentially confirmed the modeling experiments discussed
above (Brown, 1979). A fire-hardened DC-7 fuselage, protected on the outside with steel
sheeting and lined inside with a ceramic fibrous insulation, was subjected to a 20-square-foot
fuel fire. A doorway was placed alongside the fire, and two doorways were also placed away
from the fire on opposite sides of the fuselage. The variation of the symmetry plane heat flux
during three full-scale tests is shown in Figure 4. Conditions during the test with calm wind and
all doors closed more closely matched the modeling experiments. In this case, the agreement
between the modeling and full-scale results was very good. Test results suggested that when all
doors were closed the pressure rise in the heated cabin, however slight, was not relieved and
tended to prevent flame entry. In the test with all doors open and calm winds, the heat flux
increased steadily above the modeling value. Higher heat-flux readings and significant variations
OCR for page 29
Constantine P. Sarkos
29
were measured in the test with high winds (4-10 miles per hour) and all doors open. The fuel-
fire flames appeared to periodically enter and withdraw from the cabin, almost doubling the
symmetry plane heat flux dunng peak heating conditions yet returning to the modeling value
during minimal heating.
4-10 MPH WIND
ALL DOORS OPEN
;,`t
3
o
2 2
o
.~
-
a,
x
U.
'c- 1
o
FIGURE 4 DC-7 symmetry plane heat flux.
I ~ /
I, ";
I CALM WIND ALL At' /
DOORS OPEN ~ ~
,1 \ r-~
~'_ · ~ _e~
.'
--~r.~
CALF WIND ALL
DOORS CLOSED
MODELING PREDICTION ·.
_--.
DOOR FIRE DOOR
AL ' X:I ~
l l ; l l
UPWIND
DOOR
30 40 50 60
TIME ~ SECONDS
Another factor that has been shown to have a critical effect on fire penetration is the door
opening configuration. For the full-scale test conditions illustrated in Figure 5, the worst case
is when the fuel fire is upwind of the fuselage and door openings are on the downwind side of
the fuselage. In this case, the DC-7 tests have shown that there is a rapid development of fuel-
fire hazards inside the fuselage. Conversely, if the door openings are on the upwind side only,
the wind entering the door opening away from the fire has a buffering effect on fire penetration,
and the accumulation of fuel-fire hazards within the fuselage will be greatly retarded. Figure 5
compares the ceiling heat-flux level for those extreme conditions. With minimal flame
penetration, the ceiling heat-flux ranged from ~ to 2 Btu/ff s. Current aircraft materials are
virtually noncombustible under these heat-flux exposure values. Conversely, downwind door
openings created maximum flame penetration, causing the ceiling heat flux to reach 10 Btu/ft2 s.
At this heat flux, aircraft materials will ignite quickly and burn rapidly. However, since the
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30
Imp roved Fire- aru] Smoke-Resistant Materials
cabin became rapidly nonsurvivable from the fuel-fire hands alone, the role of material
flammability in cabin-fire hazard would be of minimal consequence in this scenano.
10
6
en
m
X
LL
~ 4
Ul
2
n
FIGURE 5 DC-7 ceiling heat-flux histories.
DOWNWIND DOOR / 1 / DOWNWARD ~r
ONLY OPEN, I I / DOOR ~'
8.5 -13 mph | V ~ _ 1 X
/ UPWIND Lit
/ DOOR
1
JO 1
/N I ·,:.
1 ~.
\ ~UPWIND DOOR ~, .
.~. ~.' '., ONLY OPEN, :,.
' "" 'a ;, , ,., . ..~.
\! , , , - , ,
0 ~30 40 50 60 70
TIME - SECONDS
Fuel-fire Hazards Accumulation within Cabin
In terms of the post-crash fire-heat exposure of cabin matenals, the impact of fuel-fire
penetration through a fuselage opening is twofold. First, matenals in the vicinity of the opening
will experience higher radiant heat exposure from fuel flames than when the fire does not
penetrate, as discussed previously. Second, cabin materials will also be subjected to the hot fuel-
fire smoke accumulating in the cabin. The quantity of hot smoke will increase as the flame
penetration becomes greater. A large number of experiments were conducted in a wide-body
(surplus C-133) test article, devoid of cabin matenals, to examine the hazards associated with
the fuel fire alone (Hill et al., 1979; Hill and Sarkos, 1980~. An important finding was the
pronounced stratification of heat, smoke, and toxic gases that is, the hot smoke from the fuel
fire accumulated at the ceiling. Results from a typical test are shown in Figure 6. The hot smoke
layer near the ceiling was very distinct and did not thicken appreciably with time. Temperatures
OCR for page 31
Constarair~e P. Sarkos
31
in the lower region were much lower than in the hot smoke layer and decreased almost linearly
to near ambient conditions at the floor. Thus, heat exposure of cabin materials by a fuel fire
adjacent to a fuselage opening consists of intense radiant exposure of materials very close to the
opening and convective/radiative heating of materials in the upper cabin, including ceiling and
stowage bins, extending over some area away from the fire penetration opening. The size of this
area is determined by heat losses to the smoke layer due to mixing with entrained air and surface
heat conduction. The heat tosses are very sub social; for example, ceiling layer temperature
gradients as high as 1000 OF along a 60-foot cabin length were measured during the C-133 tests.
100
80
t~ 60
z
-
-
CD
40
20
1 ///
06 1
VALUES PRESENTED IN MINUTES
1 2
TESTES / | |
3 4
HEAT STRATIFICATION
50 ft. FROM FIRE DOOR AT
THE CENTERLINE OF FUSELAGE
0 100 200 300 400
TEMPERATURE (OF)
FIGURE 6 C-133 cabin air temperature stratification.
Characteristics of Burning Cabin Materials
500 600 700
The FAA has conducted numerous full-scale fire tests on cabin materials subjected to the
previously discussed post-crash fire scenario, that is, an external fuel fire adjacent to a fuselage
opening (Sarkos et al., 1982; Sarkos and Hill, 1982, 1985, 1989; Hill et al., 1984, 1985~. The
purpose of those Bests was to determine survivability gains from improved materials and to
develop improved fire-test criteria. Test observation and data analysis provide the following
description of the characteristics of a cabin fire. The seat closest to the fuel fire is the initial
material ignited. As the seat burns, its combustion products accumulate and spread along the
ceiling. Later, the fire spreads to portions of the seats fore and aft of the initial seat ignited;
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32
Improved Fire- aM Smoke-Resistant Materials
ceiling and stowage bins above the burning seats also ignite and burn. The fire remains localized
and confined to the three outboard seats and overhead materials, which flash intermittently in
the black smoke layer. A distinct partitioning of the cabin is created a hot overhead smoke
layer clinging to the ceiling, approximately 2 or more feet thick and a clear region below the
~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ . . ~ . . . %~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ . . ~
smoke layer, largely at or near ambient conditions. lne smoke layer spreads throughout the
cabin. The observed fire below the smoke layer remains localized, and the two-zone effect
persists until the occurrence of a flashover. Although definitions of flashover vary, it is basically
a sudden, very rapid spread of fire within an enclosure. The extent of the spread of the fire is
dependent on the availability of oxygen, which is consumed in great quantities because of the
tremendous burning rates associated with the flashover.
Cabin flashover is clearly the critical factor affecting occupant survivability during a post-
crash fire that is dominated by burning cabin materials (as opposed to a post-crash fire in which
survival is governed by the fuel-fire hazards). Cabin hazard history measurements taken during
a full-scale fire test in a wide-body test article are shown in Figure 7 (Sarkos and Hill, 1985~.
O
O_
A)
lo
.
VISIBILITY (a.) x 0.1
02 (%) X 0.2
.
C-133 STATION 650
HEIGHT 5.5 FT.
TEMPERATURE (°F^) x .01
//HCI (ppm) x .01
1/~- C02(%)
0.0 30.0 60.0
FIGURE 7 C-133 cabin hazard histones.
//~ CO(%)x10
/ //~
90.0 120.0 150.0 180.0 210.0
TIME - SECONDS
~ HCN x .01
Before the flashover, which occurred at approximately 150 seconds, the cabin environment was
clearly survivable; after flashover, the conditions deteriorated to such a degree that survival
would have been highly unlikely. For example, as shown in Figure 7, within 30 seconds
visibility was reduced from clear to 3 feet, temperature increased from ambient to 400 °F,
carbon monoxide jumped from zero to 2,500 parts per million, and oxygen dropped from 21
percent to 16 percent. Obviously, improvements in post-crash fire survivability, when burning
cabin materials predominate, can best be achieved by taking measures that delay the onset of
flashover.
OCR for page 33
Constantine P. Sarkos
33
The primary areas of fire involvement during a post-crash cabin fire, as described above,
are seats near the fire origin and ceiling materials. The most extensively furnished fire test in
the C-133 wide-body test article corroborated this finding, which was observed in earlier
experiments that employed a cluster of materials about the fire opening (Sarkos and Hill, 1989~.
In the "fully furnished" C-133 test, the forward cabin was completely furnished over a length
of 45 feet (see experimental arrangement in Figure 81. Fourteen rows of seats, in a double-triple-
double seating arrangement, and a triple seat in front of the galley (totaling 101 seats) were
used. Aircraft ceiling panels, stowage bins, sidewalls, and carpeting were installed throughout
the furnished cabin length, as well. As in previous experiments, survivability was driven by
cabin flashover and extreme fire-hazard gradients were documented. After the test, it was
observed that the entire ceiling was consumed by fire, as were the outboard seats in the
immediate vicinity of the fire door. On many of the remaining seats the dress cover of the seat
back was largely burned away, but the seat fire-blocking material underneath was still present
and intact.
INSTALLED CEILING
GALLEY PARITION
(STATION 540)
~16 FT BIN.-
~ OFT ~
_ ~BFT
INSTALLED FLOOR - -a I A _-_
CARGO FLOOR
- 421N. ~
- 14FT 101N. ~
_
CEILING AREA I I
- FIRE DOOR
761N. 1 ' ~ GALLEY PARITION _ ..
ala I. .,.
1 1 '
~ ~ AIR EXHAUST DOOR
761N. i 1 /
o 140
A~
540 650 880 920
INTERIOR:
INSTRUMENTATION:
FURNISHED UNFURNISHED
TEMPERATURE/HEAT FLUX GASES/SMOKE/TEMP
FILTER PERFORMANCE
FIGURE 8 C-144 fully furnished full-scale test arrangement.
-
An account of the fire exposure/behavior of seats located away from the fire door is
shown in figures 9 and 10. Thermocouples and calorimeter (facing the ceiling) measurements
were taken near the top of the center seat at the noted seat rows (row 4 was at the fire door).
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34
Improved Fire- arm Smoke-Resistant Materials
As shown in Figure 9, it appears that the onset of flashover occurred at 210 seconds. Before
flashover, the data indicate that the fire had not spread to the center seats nor were these seats
undergoing thermal degradation. After flashover, the seat top temperatures peaked at 1600 to
1900 °F. Based on the separation between the rising portions of the temperature profiles, the
flashover propagated at a speed of approximately 60 feet/minute, or at a rate of one seat row
about every 3 seconds. The trailing edge of the temperature profile shows the fire self-
ex~cinguished and the cabin cooled down. Oxygen concentration measurements indicated that the
fire became oxygen-starved; oxygen concentration readings at the seat top level decreased to less
than 5 percent throughout the test article. The calorimeter profiles in Figure 10 provide an
indication of the duration and intensity of flaming combustion in the upper cabin caused by
flashover. Tom fire involvement of the upper cabin lasted for about ~ minute; the burning rate
(heat release) was greater near the fire door and decreased toward the rear of the furnished
cabin.
2000
1600
-
IL
a
-
u' 1200
In
Ul
Al
.
800
400
o
. .
ROWS .
a_
11 \~7\
I t'
1''t:
~--~---~-~--~-~. ~
0 60 120
180 240 300 360 420
TIME (SEC.)
FIGURE 9 C-133 fully furnished test seat top temperatures.
OCR for page 35
Constantine P. Sarkos
15
FIGURE 10 C-133 fully furnished test seat top heat flux.
20
-
-
~ 10
IU
S
ROW 4 ~
i:
ROW 1 ~ 1;
ROW 13 ~
'.~,
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480
TIME (~EC.)
DEVELOPMENT OF IMPROVED FIRE TEST CRITERIA
FOR CABIN MATERIALS
35
In recent years, the FAA has implemented two important standards to minimize the
hazards of burning cabin materials during a post-crash fire (Sarkos, 1989~. Full-scale fire tests
have demonstrated that both material fire performance advances seat cushion fire-blocHng
layers and low-heat-release panels improve passenger survivability by extending the time of
cabin flashover (Sarkos and Hill, 1982; Hill et al., 19851. Future development of advanced fire-
resistant materials should aim to further delay or possibly eliminate the occurrence of flashover.
The design scenano~s) should be based on a fuel fire that penetrates into the cabin through a
fuselage opening but is not so severe as to cause nonsurvivable conditions from the fuel fire
itself (without any involvement of cabin materials). Materials targeted for improvement should
be initially focused on the upper cabin area (ceiling panels and stowage bins) and seat cushions
and should be based on the measured cabin heating conditions and fire growth and the degree
of material fire damage observed in full-scale fire tests.
REFERENCES
Brown, L.~. 1979. Cabin Hazards From a Large External Fuel Fire Adjacent to an Aircraft
Fuselage. FAA final report FAA-NA-79-65. Atiantic City, New jersey: Federal Aviation
Administration Technical Center.
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36
Improved Fire- arm Smoke-Resistant Materials
Eklund, T.~. 1978. Pool Fire Radiation Through a Door in a Simulated Aircraft Fuselage. FAA
final report FAA-RD-78-135. Atlantic City, New Jersey: Federal Aviation Administration
Technical Center.
Eklund, T.~., and C.P. Sarkos. 1980. The thermal impact of external pool fires on aircraft
fuselages. Journal of Fire and Flammability Il(3~:231-240.
Hill, R.G., and C.P. Sarkos. 1980. Post-crash fuel fire hazard measurements in a wide body
aircraft cabin. Journal of Fire and Flammability Il(2~:151-163.
Hill, R.G., G.R. John son and C.P. Sarkos. 1979. Postcrash Fuel Fire Hazard Measurements
in a Wide-Body Aircraft Cabin. FAA final report FAA-NA-79-42. Atlantic City, New
Jersey: Federal Aviation Administration Technical Center.
Hill, R.G., L.~. Brown, L. Speitel, G.R. Johnson, and C.P. Sarkos. 1984. Aircraft Seat Fire
Blocking Layers: Effectiveness and Benefits Under Various Scenarios. FAA final report
DOT/FAA/CT-83/43. Atlantic City, New Jersey: Federal Aviation Administration
Technical Center.
Hill, R.G., T.~. Eklund, and C.P. Sarkos. 1985. Aircraft Interior Pane! Test Criteria Derived
From Full-Scale Fire Tests. FAA final report DOT/FAA/CT-85/23. Atiantic City, New
Jersey: Federal Aviation Administration Technical Center.
Sarkos, C.P. 1971. Titanium Fuselage Environmental Conditions in Postcrash Fires. FAA final
report FAA-RD-71-3. Atlantic City, New Jersey: Federal Aviation Administration
Technical Center.
Sarkos, C.P. 1989. Development of improved fire safety standards adopted by the Federal
Aviation Administration. Pp. 5-l to 5-13 in AGARD Conference Proceedings No. 467
on Aircraft Fire Safety, Sintra, Portugal, May 22-26, 1989. Neuilly-Sur-Seine, France:
North Adantic Treaty Organization, Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and
Development.
Sarkos, C.P., and R.G. Hill. 1982. Effectiveness of Seat Cushion Fire Blocking Layer Materials
Against Cabin Fires. SAE paper No. 821484. Presented at Aerospace Congress and
Exposition, Anaheim, California, October 25-2S, 1982. Warrindale, Pennsylvania:
Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
Sarkos, C.P., and R.G. Hill. 1985. Evaluation of Aircraft Interior Panels Under Full-Scale
Cabin Fire Test Conditions. ATAA-85-0393. AlAA 23rd Aerospace Sciences Meeting,
Reno, Nevada, January 14-17, 1985. New York: American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics.
Sarkos, C.P., and R.G. Hill. 1989. Characteristics of aircraft fires measured in full-scale tests.
Pp. It-! to Il-17 in AGARD Conference Proceedings No. 467 on Aircraft Fire Safety,
Sintra, Portugal, May 22-26, 1989. Neuilly-Sur-Seine, France: North Atiantic Treaty
Organization, Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development.
Sarkos. C.P.' R.G. Hill, and W.D. Howell. 1982. The development and application of a full-
scale wide body test article to study the behavior of interior materials during a postcrash
fuel fire. Pp. 6-l to 6-21 in AGARD Lecture Series No. 123 on Aircraft Fire Safety,
OsIo, Norway, June 7-8, 1982. Neuilly-Sur-Seine, France: North Atiantic Treaty
Organization, Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development.
- - - - r - ~-at- r - --- - - -
Representative terms from entire chapter:
heat flux
