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UPSTREAM
i
Salmon and Society
in the Pacific Northwest
Committee on Protection and Management of
Pacific Northwest Anadromous Salmonids
Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology
Commission on Life Sciences
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C. 1996
OCR for page R2
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS · 2101 Constitution Ave., N.W. · Washington, D.C. 20418
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the
National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of
Sciences, the National Academy f Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the
committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for
appropriate balance.
This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures
approved by a Report Review Committee consisting, of members of the National Academy of Sci-
ences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.
The project was supported by Department of Commerce, National Oceanic anti Atmospheric
Administration under grant #NA26FH0208.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Upstream: salmon and society in the Pacific Northwest / Committee on
Protection and Management of Pacific Northwest Anadromous Salmonids,
Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission on Life
Sciences.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index.
ISBN 0-309-05325-0
1. Pacific salmon Northwest, Pacific. 2. Fishery conservation-
Social aspects Northwest, Pacific. 3. Pacific salmon fisheries-
Pacific Northwest Management. 4. Pacific salmon Effect of
habitat modification on Northwest, Pacific. I. National Research
Council (U.S.). Committee on Protection and Management of Pacific
Northwest Anadromous Salmonids.
QL638.S2U67 1996
597'.55 dc20 95-51662
CIP
Copyright 1996 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Cover art: Midnight Run by Ray Troll, Ketchikan~ Alaska
Printed in the United States of America
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COMMITTEE ON PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF
PACIFIC NORTHWEST ANADROMOUS SALMONIDS
John J. Magnuson (Chair), University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin
Fred W. Allendorf, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana
Robert L. Beschta, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon
Peter A. Bisson, Weyerhaeuser Company, Tacoma, Washington
Hampton L. Carson, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii
Donald W. Chapman, Don Chapman Consultants, Inc., Boise, Idaho
Susan S. Hanna, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon
Anne R. Kapuscinski, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota
Kai N. Lee, Williams College, Williamstown, Massachusetts
Dennis P. Lettenmaier, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
Bonnie J. McCay, Rutgers, The State University, New Brunswick, New Jersey
Gordon M. MacNabb, independent consultant, Vernon, British Columbia,
Canada
Thomas P. Quinn, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
Brian E. Riddell, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Pacific Biological
Station, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada
Earl E. Werner, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
Staff
David J. Policansky, Project Director
Tania Williams, Research Associate
Norman Grossblatt, Editor
Adrienne Davis, Senior Project Assistant
Sponsor
Department of Commerce
. . .
zzz
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BOARD ON ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND TOXICOLOGY
Paul G. Risser (Chair), Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon
Michael J. Bean, Environmental Defense Fund, Washington, D.C.
Eula gingham, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio
Paul Busch, Malcom Pirnie, Inc., White Plains, New York
Edwin H. Clark II, Clean Sites, Inc., Alexandria, Virginia
Allan H. Conney, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey
Ellis Cowling, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
George P. Daston, The Procter & Gamble Co., Cincinnati, Ohio
Diana Freckman, Colorado State University, Ft. Collins, Colorado
Robert A. Frosch, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
Raymond C. Loehr, The University of Texas, Austin, Texas
Gordon Orians, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
Geoffrey Place, Hilton Head, South Carolina
David P. Rall, Washington, D.C.
Leslie A. Real, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana
Kristin Shrader-Frechette, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida
Burton H. Singer, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
Margaret Strand, Bayh, Connaughton and Malone, Washington, D.C.
Gerald Van Belle, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
Bailus Walker, Jr., Howard University, Washington, D.C.
Terry F. Yosie, E. Bruce Harrison Co., Washington, D.C.
Stay
James J. Reisa, Director
David J. Policansky, Associate Director and Program Director for Natural
Resources and Applied Ecology
Carol A. Maczka, Program Director for Toxicology and Risk Assessment
Lee R. Paulson, Program Director for Information Systems and Statistics
Raymond A. Wassel, Program Director for Environmental Sciences and
_ . .
I_ng~neer~ng
IV
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COMMISSION ON LIFE SCIENCES
Thomas D. Pollard (Chair), The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,
Maryland
Frederick R. Anderson, Cadwalader, Wickersham & Taft, Washington, D.C.
John C. Bailar III, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
John E. Burris, Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Massachusetts
Michael T. Clegg, University of California, Riverside, California
Glenn A. Crosby, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington
Ursula W. Goodenough, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri
Susan E. Leeman, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston,
Massachusetts
Richard E. Lenski, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
Thomas E. Lovejoy, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Donald R. Mattison, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Joseph E. Murray, Wellesley Hills, Massachusetts
Edward E. Penhoet, Chiron Corp., Emeryville, California
Emil A. Pfitzer, Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Hackensack, New
Jersey
Malcolm C. Pike, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
Henry C. Pitot III, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin
Jonathan M. Samet, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
Harold M. Schmeck Jr., North Chatham, Massachusetts
Carla J. Shatz, University of California, Berkeley, California
John L. Vandeberg, Southwestern Foundation for Biomedical Research, San
Antonio, Texas
Paul Gilman, Executive Director
v
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OTHER RECENT REPORTS OF THE BOARD ON ENVIRONMENTAL
STUDIES AND TOXICOLOGY
Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet: A Comparison of
Naturally Occurring and Synthetic Substances (1996)
Science and the Endangered Species Act (1995)
Wetlands: Characteristics and Boundaries (1995)
Biologic Markers in Urinary Toxicology (1995)
Review of EPA's Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (three
reports, 1994- 1995)
Science and Judgment in Risk Assessment (1994)
Ranking Hazardous Sites for Remedial Action (1994)
Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children (1993)
Issues in Risk Assessment (1993)
Setting Priorities for Land Conservation (1993)
Protecting Visibility in National Parks and Wilderness Areas (1993)
Biologic Markers in Immunotoxicology (1992)
Dolphins and the Tuna Industry (1992)
Environmental Neurotoxicology ~ 1992)
Hazardous Materials on the Public Lands (1992)
Science and the National Parks (1992)
Animals as Sentinels of Environmental Health Hazards (1991)
Assessment of the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Studies
Program,Volumes I-IV ~ 1991 - 1993)
Human Exposure Assessment for Airborne Pollutants (1991)
Monitoring Human Tissues for Toxic Substances ~ 1991 ~
Rethinking the Ozone Problem in Urban and Regional Air Pollution (1991)
Decline of the Sea Turtles (1990)
Tracking Toxic Substances at Industrial Facilities (1990)
Biologic Markers in Pulmonary Toxicology (1989)
Biologic Markers in Reproductive Toxicology (1989)
Copies of these reports may be ordered from
the National Academy Press
(8009 624-6242
(202) 334-3313
Vl
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Preface
The Committee on Protection and Management of Pacific Northwest
Anadromous Salmon was formed in 1992 under the auspices of the National
Research Council's Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology (BEST).
The committee was formally charged as follows:
The committee will review information concerning the seven species
of the genus Oncorhynchus in the Pacific Northwest. The review will
focus on the population status, habitat, and environmental requirements
of the stocks. It will include analysis of information about their genetics,
history, management, and production by hatcheries, as well as federal,
state, tribal, and other management regimes. The committee will evalu-
ate options for improving the prospects for long-term sustainability of
the stocks, and will consider economic and social implications of such
changes. The committee will undertake the following general tasks:
Assess the state of the stocks. This assessment will include a consid-
eration of the nature of local adaptations of stocks to environmental
conditions. More specific questions will probably include the degree to
which the adaptations are due to phenotypic plasticity versus genetic
differences, the nature and appropriate definition of a stock, the value of
a diversity of stocks for preserving evolutionary potential, and which
stocks are in danger of extinction or of becoming irretrievably mixed
with other stocks.
Analyze the causes of decline. This analysis will consider all stages of
. .
V11
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. . .
V111
PREFACE
the life history of the seven species: spawning and nursery habitat,
downstream migration, life at sea, and the return upriver to spawn.
Analyze options for intervention (management). Again, this will in
volve all stages of the life history. It will include a consideration
of previous activities, such as the Pacific Northwest Power Planning
Council's program in adaptive management; federal, state, and local
regulations and enhancements; and other activities. The analysis will
include some consideration of socioeconomic costs and benefits.
Composition of this "salmon" committee was especially broad; it had to be
to encompass the geographic, scientific, and human breadth of the issues in the
continuing interactions in the Pacific Northwest between salmon and humans.
Members included experts with general and specific knowledge of genetics, fish
ecology, stream ecology, fish biology, inland waters and ocean science, anthro-
pology, social science, political science, international fisheries and transboundary
issues, habitat and habitat rehabilitation, hydrology, hatcheries, dams, fishery
management, and fishery science. The committee's biographies are in Appendix
A. I especially appreciated the degree to which the committee was able to frame
and synthesize the many facets of the "salmon problem." I continue to be amazed
by the high quality of the National Research Council staff; on behalf of the
committee I especially thank David Policansky, Tania Williams, and Adrienne
Davis.
The committee met seven times from December 1992 to June 1994; two
meetings were held in Portland, Oregon, and two in Seattle, Washington, to allow
persons from the Pacific Northwest with information relevant to the issues easy
access to the committee. In addition, a writing subgroup met and individual
committee members met in pairs and trios on specific issues. The dates and
meeting locations are in Appendix B.
The committee thanks the many persons who provided information and
points of view to us in open sessions and public hearings. These people further
broadened the scope of the committee, and the specific information we received
greatly helped develop our own perspectives on the issues. These individuals and
organizations are identified in Appendix C. Also, I thank Courtland L. Smith for
his many contributions during the period he served on the committee, both to the
process of the committee and the text of our report.
The "salmon problem" in the Pacific Northwest is one that can be dealt with
only if the diverse participants work together on the many issues that unfold over
the long meandering path laid out by the salmon over their lives from clear cold
streams where they hatch, to the ocean where they grow, and back again to their
natal streams to spawn. Owing to the wide distribution of Pacific anadromous
salmon, the region over which the salmon-human interactions play out cuts across
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PREFACE
IX
local, state, and international boundaries; across the responsibilities of many
human institutions designed to deal with parts of the problem; and across the
lands and waters used in many different human endeavors. The interactions with
human activity cannot be solved by the action of single groups or by focusing on
single issues and single causes. In a sense, Upstream: Salmon and Society in the
Pacific Northwest challenges society to deal with this large issue involving
environmental, resource, and human considerations at the time and space scales
necessary to prevent further declines or perhaps even rehabilitate the human-
salmon system.
John J. Magnuson
Chair
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The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distin-
guished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of
science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter
granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal
government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce Alberts is president of the National
Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the Na-
tional Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in
its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences
the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also
sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research,
and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Harold Liebowitz is president of the
National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to
secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy
matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the
National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government
and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth
I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to
associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering
knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies
determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the
National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the
government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered
jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce Alberts and Dr. Harold Liebowitz
are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.
x
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Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY, 1
Status of Salmon Populations, 2
The Salmon Problem, 3
General Conclusion, 4
Environmental Factors, 4
Limits on Salmon Production, 5
Values, 6
Genetics and Conservation, 7
Habitat Loss and Rehabilitation, 8
Dams, 9
Hatcheries, 11
Fishing, 12
Institutional Change, 14
A Scientific Advisory Board to Address Salmon Problems, 15
An Approach to Solving the Salmon Problem, 15
The Future, 16
1 INTRODUCTION, 1 8
The Salmon Problem, 18
Components of the System, 20
The Region, 20
The Salmon, 20
Evolutionary, Genetic, Ecological, and Spatial Units of Concern, 21
The People, 23
Xl
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. .
All
Components of the Problem, 24
Limits to Biological Production, 24
Institutions, 24
Knowledge, 25
Approaches, 25
Goals, 25
Framework, 25
2 SALMON GEOGRAPHY AND ECOLOGY, 28
Introduction, 28
Salmon Life History and Distribution, 29
Anadromy, 29
Homing, 29
Semelparity, 29
Generalized Life Cycle, 30
Individual Species Distributions, 31
Pacific Northwest Salmon Areas, 33
River Basins, 34
Ocean, 35
Salmon Ecology in River Basins, 35
Species Interactions, 35
Juvenile Adaptability, 37
Spawners' Effects on Streams, 37
Cautions, 38
Salmon Ecology in the Ocean, 39
Interdecadal Variation in Ocean Climate, 40
Density-Dependent Effects, 44
Larger Spatial and Temporal Scales, 45
HUMAN HISTORY AND INFLUENCES, 46
Historical Setting, 46
Cultures and Treaties, 47
Decline of the Beaver, 49
Fishing Pressures, 49
Propagating Fish, 50
Grazing Rangelands, 55
Harvesting the Old Growth, 56
Damming the Northwest, 60
Watering the Land, 66
Altering Wetlands and Estuaries, 70
Summary and Conclusions, 73
CONTENTS
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CONTENTS
4 STATUS OF SAEMON, 75
Interpreting Historical Records, 77
The Stock Concept, 78
Risk Assessment, 79
Fraser River Basin, 82
Puget Sound, 86
Columbia River Basin, 90
Historical Trends, 90
Snake River, 91
Middle and Upper Columbia River, 95
Lower Columbia River, 101
Coastal Washington, Oregon, and California, 103
Willapa Bay A Case Study, 110
5 VAEUES AND INSTITUTIONS, 115
Introduction, 115
Individual Preferences and Public Values, 116
How Salmon Are Valued, 117
Direct Regional Economic Value, 121
Indirect and Option Values, 122
Resource Values and Public Choice, 124
Value Over Time and Generations, 125
Institutions and Values, 126
"Lords of Yesterday", 126
Technological Optimism, 129
Political Pluralism, 130
"Princes of Today"?, 130
Public Trust and American Indian Rights, 131
Resource Planning, 131
Fisheries Management Institutions, 139
Biodiversity and Endangered Species, 140
Compensation, Liability and the Law, 141
Values and Analysis, 142
6 GENETICS AND CONSERVATION, 145
Structure of Genetic Variation, 146
Local Reproductive Units, 148
Local Adaptation, 150
Metapopulation Structure, 155
Level of Genetic Organization to be Conserved, 159
Effects of Human Activities on Genetic Diversity, 161
Conclusions, 162
. . .
Xtll
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XIV
7 HABTTAT LOSS, 164
Dimensions of the Problem, 164
Natural Versus Anthropogenic Disturbances
and Watershed Productivity, 166
Sedimentation, 169
Streambank Erosion, 180
Streambank Armoring and Channelization, 181
Instream Mining, 182
Diking, Draining, and Filling, 183
Flood Control, 185
Altered Streamflow, 186
Altered Groundwater, 189
Altered Riparian Vegetation, 190
Altered Thermal Regime, 191
Decreased Large Woody Debris, 194
Migration Barriers, 196
Water Pollution, 197
Loss of Refuges, 199
Summary, 199
8 HABTTAT MANAGEMENT AND REHAsT~TTAT~oN, 204
Watershed Influences, 204
Habitat-Management Options, 206
Protection, 206
Restoration, 206
Rehabilitation, 211
Substitution, 212
Watershed Analysis, 213
Opportunities and Challenges, 217
Property Rights and Habitat Protection on Private Lands, 221
Burden of Proof, 224
Habitat Management and Fisheries Management, 225
9 DAMS AND MITIGATION OF THEIR EFFECTS, 226
Introduction, 226
Effects of Dams on Salmon, 231
Dam-Related Mortality, 231
Time of Travel, 235
Unscreened Diversion Dams, 237
Estuarine Dynamics, 237
Mitigation of Dams' Effects on Salmon, 238
Fish-Passage Facilities, 238
Predator Control, 240
CONTENTS
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CONTENTS
10 FISHING, 254
Transportation, 240
Spill, 241
Flow Augmentation, 243
Reservoir Drawdown, 246
Dam Removal, 248
Selection of Mitigation Alternatives, 253
Salmon Fisheries in the Pacific Northwest, 254
Early History, 254
The 1990s, 257
Fishery-Management Institutions, 258
Fishery-Management Data, 260
International Influences, 262
High-Seas Fishing, 262
Canadian and U.S. Fishery Interactions, 265
Conclusion, 273
1 1 SA~MoN-F~sHERY MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS, 2 75
Stock and Recruitment, 276
Fishery Management in the Future, 285
The Status Quo, 285
The No-Fishing Option, 287
The Limited-Entry Option, 291
The Terminal-Fishery Option, 292
Developing a New Management Paradigm, 293
Conclusions, 301
12 HATCHERIES, 302
Problems Associated with Hatchery Practices, 304
Demographic Risks, 305
Genetic and Evolutionary Risks, 305
Behavior, 310
Fish Health, 311
Physiology, 312
Ecological Problems, 313
Roles of Hatcheries in the Future of Salmon, 314
Hatcheries in the Rehabilitation Option, 316
Temporary Hatcheries, 318
Catch-Augmentation Hatchery, 319
Conclusions, 319
Recommendations, 321
XV
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XVI
13 INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS, 324
Introduction, 324
Bioregional Governance, 326
Cooperative Management, 332
Adaptive Management, 336
A Proposal for Constructive Action, 340
Columbia River System, 346
Coastal Streams and Estuaries, 347
14 A SCIENTIFIC ADVISORY BOARD TO ADDRESS THE SAEMON PRosEEM, 348
Gaps in Knowledge, 348
Science, River Flows, and Uncertainty, 349
A Scientific Advisory Board, 353
Why a Scientific Advisory Board Is Needed, 353
Requirements for an Effective Scientific Advisory Board, 355
15 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS:
TOWARD A SusTA~NAsEE FUTURE FOR SAEMON, 358
General Conclusion, 359
Environmental Changes, 360
Oceanic Conditions, 361
Regional Variation, 361
Values and Institutions, 362
Genetics and Conservation, 363
Genetic Resources, 363
Regional Population Structure, 363
Habitat Loss and Rehabilitation, 364
Dams, 366
Fishing and Fishery Management, 368
Too Few Spawners, 368
Protection of Genetic Diversity, 369
Strong and Depleted Populations, 370
Hatcheries, 371
Role of Hatcheries, 371
Regional Variation in Use of Hatcheries, 372
Information Needs, 373
Funding Adequacy, 373
Adaptive Management, 373
Institutions, 374
An Approach to Solving the Salmon Problem, 378
The Future, 379
REFERENCES, 381
CONTENTS
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CONTENTS
APPENDIXES
A: Biographical Information on Committee Members and Staff, 421
B: Meeting Dates and Locations, 429
C: Acknowledgments, 430
D: Major Landforms and Their Rivers, 432
E: International Treaty Considerations in Operation of the
Columbia River System, 435
F: Reservoir-System Operation, 438
INDEX, 441
XVi!
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Facing page: Image of the Haida Dog Salmon (Saagi) by Haida artist Bill Reid. Courtesy
of Bill Reid and the Buschlen Mowatt Gallery, 111-1445 W. Georgia St., Vancouver, BC,
Canada V6G 2T3.
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i
PSTREAH
Salmon and Society
in the Pacific Northwest
~ \~
,~
,~
Yew
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