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NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the panel responsible for the report were chosen for their special competencies and with regard for appropriate balance.
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The program described in this report is supported by cooperative agreement No. 14-35-0001-30475 between the Minerals Management Service of the U.S. Department of the Interior and the National Academy of Sciences and by interagency cooperative agreement No. DTMA91-94-G-00003 between the U.S. Maritime Administration of the U.S. Department of Transportation and the National Academy of Sciences.
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Copyright © 1996 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Cover Photo: STAR Center, Dania, Florida
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COMMITTEE ON SHIP-BRIDGE SIMULATION TRAINING
WILLIAM A. CREELMAN, Chair, Marine Consultant,
Cape Cod, Massachusetts
PETER BARBER,
The Southampton Institute, United Kingdom
ANITA D'AMICO BEADON,
Northrop Grumman Corporation, Beth Page, New York
PETER H. CRESSY,
University of Massachusetts, Dartmouth
DOWARD G. DOUWSMA,
Grafton Group, Gainesville, Georgia
PHYLLIS J. KAYTEN,
Federal Aviation Administration, Moffett Field, California
GAVAN LINTERN,
University of Illinois, Savoy
DANIEL H. MacELREVEY, Consultant,
Wildwood Crest, New Jersey
EDMOND L. MANDIN, Consultant,
Kentfield, California
ROBERT J. MEURN,
U.S. Merchant Marine Academy, Kings Point, New York
J. NICHOLAS NEWMAN,
NAE, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
RICHARD A.SUTHERLAND, Consultant,
Annandale, Virginia
Government Liaisons
LARRY DAGGETT,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg, Mississippi
ALEXANDER C. LANDSBURG,
U.S. Maritime Administration, Washington D.C.
CHRISTINE S. MEERS,
U.S. Coast Guard, Washington, D.C.
Staff
WAYNE YOUNG, Senior Staff Officer (until January 1995)
MARLENE R.B. BEAUDIN, Senior Staff Officer (from January 1995)
RICKY PAYNE, Administrative assistant (until March 1994)
CARLA D. MOORE, Administrative Assistant (from January 1995)
MARINE BOARD
Richard J. Seymour, Chair,
Texas A&M University and Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California
BERNARD J. ABRAHAMSSON,
University of Wisconsin, Superior
JERRY A. ASPLAND, (retired)
ARCO Marine, Inc., Long Beach, California
ANNE D. AYLWARD,
Volpe National Transportation Systems Center, Cambridge, Massachusetts
MARK Y. BERMAN,
Amoco Corporation, Tulsa, Oklahoma
BROCK B. BERNSTEIN,
EcoAnalysis, Ojai, California
JOHN W. BOYLSTON,
Argent Marine Operations, inc., Solomons, Maryland
SARAH CHASIS,
Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc., New York, New York
CHRYSSOSTOMOS CHRYSSOSTOMIDIS,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
BILIANA CICIN-SAIN,
University of Delaware, Newark
JAMES M. COLEMAN,
NAE, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge
BILLY L. EDGE,
Texas A&M University, College Station
MARTHA GRABOWSKI,
LeMoyne College and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Cazenovia, New York
M. ELIZABETH PATÉ-CORNELL,
NAE, Stanford University, Stanford, California
DONALD W.PRITCHARD,
NAE, State University of New York at Stony Brook, Severna Park, Maryland
STEPHANIE R. THORNTON,
Coastal Resources Center, San Francisco, California
KARL K. TUREKIAN,
NAS, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
ROD VULOVIC,
Sea-Land Service, Inc., Elizabeth, New Jersey
E.G. "SKIP" WARD,
Shell Offshore, Inc., Houston, Texas
ALAN G. YOUNG,
Fugro-McClelland BV, Houston, Texas
Staff
CHARLES A. BOOKMAN, Director
DONALD W. PERKINS, Associate Director
DORIS C. HOLMES, Staff Associate
Acknowledgments
The committee is indebted to many individuals and organizations who generously made presentations and provided information and access to facilities during the course of its work.
We first thank our three sponsors' liaisons, Alexander C. Landsburg of the U.S. Maritime Administration, Christine Meers of the U.S. Coast Guard, and Dr. Larry Daggett of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, who provided helpful and expert counsel throughout our study.
The committee visited a number of facilities during its work. One such facility was the Computer Assisted Operations Research Facility (CAORF) at the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy, Kings Point, New York. Rear Admiral Paul Krinsky, Superintendent of the Academy, and Dr. F. Eugene Guest of MarineSafety International, operators of CAORF, and their staffs were particularly helpful. Another simulator facility visited was Maritime Institute of Technology and Graduate Studies at Linthicum, Maryland, where our host and guide was Captain Charles Pillsbury and whose expert staff was most helpful.
The Seaman's Church Institute simulator facility in New York City, under the direction of Captain Richard Beadon, was also toured by the committee. Subsequently, a subcommittee was generously afforded the opportunity to experience a simulator-based ship-bridge team training course at this facility.
The committee appreciates the hospitality of the American Marine Officer's (AMO) Raymond T. McKay Simulation Training and Research (STAR) Center at Dania, Florida, under the direction of Captain Harry Crooks of AMO and Tom Mara of SIMSHIP Corporation. While touring this facility, the committee observed simulation training and held a number of meetings. Captain
Frank Seitz and Brian Long of SIMSHIP, as well as members of their staffs, were extremely helpful.
Other facilities that welcomed and briefed the committee included the following: (1) the Naval Air Warfare Center, Training Systems Division in Orlando, Florida, where the committee was hosted by Commander McMeekan; (2) the Naval Amphibious School in Little Creek, Virginia, where committee members rode manned models and observed radio-controlled models in a maneuvering basin; (3) the Delta Airlines Training Facility in Atlanta, Georgia, where each committee member experienced the 767 aircraft simulators; (4) the U.S. Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland, where the committee attended Blake Bush's interactive rules-of-the-road class and used the Academy's ship-bridge simulator; and (5) the Massachusetts Maritime Academy, where the committee chair toured the simulator facilities and observed simulator training of cadets.
The committee greatly appreciates insightful presentations made in Atlanta by Captain Ed Moir, systems Manager, Delta Flight Training; Captain Tony Papandrea, manager, Delta Flight Training Operations; Paul Ray of the Federal Aviation Administration National Flight Simulation Program; Thomas Longridge of the Federal Aviation Administration; and Phil Buscovitch, manager, Advanced Qualification Program, Delta Airlines.
Many individual ships' pilots and pilot associations gave generously of their time and expertise. Among them were Captain Jack Sparks and Paul Kirschner of the American Pilots' Association; Vincent Black and Captain H.W. Mahlmann of the United Sandy Hook Pilots of New York and New Jersey; Captain Richard Owen of the Association of Maryland Pilots; Captain Edward Cray of the port Everglade Pilots; and Captain S. Orlando Allard, chief, maritime training, the Panama Canal Commission.
Technical presentations were also made to the committee by Thomas Hammell of Paradigm Associates; Wei-Yang Hwang of MarineSafety International; Rear Admiral Floyd H. Miller, superintendent of the New York Maritime Academy; George Sandberg of the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy; Dean Albert Higgins of the Maine Maritime Academy; and Jim Brown of the Harry Lundeberg School of Seamanship. Presentations on desktop and part-task simulations were demonstrated by Franklin Gaines of the Mariners' License Preparation School and Greg Szczurek of Examco and Houston Marine. Each of these people contributed to the knowledge and understanding of the committee.
Vessel operators and their consultants shared their valuable insights about simulators training with the committee. Among these were James Sanborn of Maritrans; James Sweeney of Morania Oil Tanker Corporation and their consultant, Captain Herb Groh; John Boylston of Argent Marine; Captain Saunders Jones of American President Lines; and Morris Croce of Chevron Shipping.
The committee also benefited greatly from the efforts of committee member Captain Edmond Mandin, who arranged rides for committee members from San Pedro, California, to Oakland aboard American President Line container ships
President Lincoln and President Roosevelt. The officers and crews of those vessels were extremely helpful to the committee. Committee member Robert Meurn also arranged lodging, tours of simulator facilities, and use of meeting facilities at U.S. Merchant Marine Academy and CAORF, which are most appreciated.
The committee is grateful to Wayne Young, staff director from the inception of the study in 1992 through year-end 1994, for his efforts in arranging and coordinating the presentations at our many meetings and to Marlene Beaudin, staff director following Wayne's departure, for the intensive editing and organizational work she so ably performed. Our appreciation goes to the staff work of Ricky Payne who supported our work until his illness in 1994 and to Carla Moore who succeeded him.
The committee has been the beneficiary of extraordinary cooperation and helpfulness from all areas of relevant expertise—vessel operators, maritime and aviation training experts, learning system experts, simulator operators, simulation software designers, maritime and aviation licensing officials, and ships' officers and pilots. Their generous assistance made this study possible.
Preface
BACKGROUND
The professional performance of merchant mariners, marine pilots, and towing vessel operators has been brought to public attention by major marine accidents and the resulting loss of life, oil spills, and damage to marine ecosystems. Intense public and congressional interest in the safety of marine transportation and the qualification of deck officers and pilots was stimulated by the Exxon Valdez grounding and oil spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska, in 1989. National interest has been sustained by newsworthy marine accidents along the nation's seacoasts involving all major categories of commercial vessels—cargo ships, tankers, coastwise and inland towing vessels, and passenger vessels. Faulty human performance has figured prominently in most of these accidents.
The U.S.A. Congress, in the Oil Pollution Act 1990(OPA 90 P.L. 101-380), recognized the potential value of simulation in training deck officers and pilots of vessels transporting oil and hazardous substances in U.S. waters. The act directed the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) to determine the feasibility and practicality of mandating simulator-based training.
Among the recommendation of a subsequent USCG internal study. Licensing 2000 and Beyond (Anderson et al., 1993), were recommendations that the agency do the following:
- assess computer-based training and testing system for possible application to mariner training and licensing, and
- conduct research and development for microcomputer desktop training programs.
Marine simulation in various forms is not new to the marine community. Ship maneuvering simulations, manned models, and radar simulations have been used for specialized training in the marine community since the 1960s. The U.S. Maritime Administration (MarAd) and the USCG conducted extensive operational research into human performance during the 1970s and early 1980s using a computer-based ship-bridge simulator constructed for that purpose: the Computer Aided Operations Research Facility (CAORF) located on the grounds of the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy in Kings Point, New York. Although this research diminished significantly after the privatization of the CAORF facility in the mid-1980s,the published research, albeit somewhat dated, still serves as a major resource for guiding the use of marine simulation in professional development.
Over the past decade, labor unions and private companies have made substantial investments worldwide in the establishment of computer-based marine simulator facilities. These facilities have been used extensively by some shipping and towing companies and marine pilot associations for specialized training and continuing professional development. Radar simulation is now used extensively for prerequisite radar observer training as part of marine licensing and certification requirements worldwide. The port community, including port authorities and marine pilots, is also familiar with shiphandling simulation through its application to channel design.
Given this background, the USCG requested that the National Research Council of the National academy of Sciences conduct a comprehensive assessment of the role of ship-bridge simulation in professional development and marine licensing. In requesting the study, the agency indicated that the report should focus on the use of ship-bridge simulation in training U.S. deck officers and pilots of all categories of ships operating in U.S. coastal and harbor waters, as well as operators of coastwise towing vessels. The agency indicated that other forms of marine simulator—such as manned models, limited-task simulators, and desktop computer-based simulators—should be included for comparative purposes. The use of simulation for inland towing vessels is beyond the scope of this assessment.
FORMATION OF THE NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL COMMITTEE
The National Research Council convened the Committee on Ship-Bridge Simulation Training under the auspices of the Marine Board of the Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems. Committee members were selected for their expertise and to ensure a wide range of experience and viewpoints. Consistent with the policy of the National Research Council, the principle guiding constitution of the committee and its work was not to exclude a potential member with expertise vital to the study because of potential biases, but rather to seek a balance among the members of the committee as a whole.
Committee members were selected for their experience in marine pilotage, hydrodynamics, marine and adult education theory and practice, marine and aviation simulation, ship and towing vessel operations and management, shiphandling, marine licensing, and human performance. Academic, industrial, government, and engineering perspectives were reflected in the committee's composition. Brief biographies of committee members are provided in Appendix A.
The committee was assisted by the USCG, MarAd and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, each of which designated liaison representatives.
SCOPE OF STUDY
The committee was asked to conduct a multidisciplinary assessment of the role of ship-bridge simulation in the professional development and licensing of mariners responsible for vessel navigation and piloting. Included in the scope of study were
- the state of practice in applying ship-bridge simulation technology for pilot, individual, and team training;
- the potential, role, and cost effectiveness1 of ship-bridge simulation for initial maritime education, licensing, skills development, skills maintenance,indoctrination to emerging navigation and ship technologies and determining professional competence;
- the scientific, technical and professional bases for substituting simulation for practical experience in professional development and in marine licensing;
- requirements for the development and validation of ship-bridge simulators and simulation; and
- improvements and research needed in technology and applications to advance the state of practice of ship-bridge simulation for professional development and marine licensing.
The committee was asked to focus on computer-based, full-mission and limited- task simulators, full bridge mockups, and the operation of oceangoing and coastwise vessels in coastal waters, harbors, and waterways. Manned models, desktop simulators, virtual reality systems, and other forms of marine simulators are included as alternatives for comparative analysis.
COMMITTEE ACTIVITIES
As a part of its background research, the committee commissioned a literature search that initially identified approximately 1,400 possibly relevant
1 |
The committee was not able to make a detailed analysis of the cost effectiveness of ship-bridge simulation. Chapter 2 does, however, contain some information on the range of cost of simulator-based training. |
documents. From the list, 103 of the most relevant documents were selected and abstracted for the committee (Douwsma, 1993). Of that number, the committee found that nearly half were technical papers and reports of research and experimentation from CAORF (primarily from the 1970s and early 1980s),and half were conference and journal articles.
During the course of the study, the committee also visited a number of marine and one air carrier simulation facilities, including:
- CAORF, Kings Point, New York;
- Maritime Institute of Technology and Graduate Studies, Maryland;
- Seaman's Church Institute, New York;
- STAR Center, Florida;
- Naval Air Warfare Center, Florida;
- Naval Amphibious School, Virginia;
- U.S. Naval Academy, Maryland;
- Massachusetts Maritime Academy, Massachusetts; and
- Delta Airlines Training Facility, Georgia.
In addition, the committee received presentations from and participated in discussions with over 30 experts, one of which was a detailed orientation on the experiences of Panama Canal pilots by Captain S. Orlando Allard (see Allard, 1993). Several members of the committee also attended a three-day simulator-based ship-bridge team training course at Seaman's Church Institute.
REPORT ORGANIZATION
This report was prepared for state and federal government decision makers, marine safety and licensing authorities, mariners, the shipping and coastwise towing industries, marine education and training facilities, and public interest organizations.
Moreover, the USCG, on behalf of the United States, has joined a number of other delegations to the International Maritime Organization in urging international requirements and standards for the use of simulation in qualifying mariners. A major revision of the international standards that establish a baseline for knowledge and skill requirements leading to the issuance of marine licenses for seagoing ships is in progress. The report could serve as a resource in addressing and implementing changes in these areas. Chapter 1 reviews the duties and responsibilities of deck officers and marine pilots and introduces issues in the professional development of mariners and the international and national context for mariner training, licensing, and professional development. Chapter 2 describes the classification and types of simulators and summarizes the current state of practice in the use of simulators for training and licensing. This chapter also reviews the use of simulators by the commercial air carrier industry. Chapter 3 discusses the instructional design process and identifies the key elements that comprise an effective training program. Chapter 4 describes the training
environment produced by computer-based simulators and by manned models and relates that environment to training objectives discussed in Chapter 3. Chapter 5 discusses the use of simulation for evaluation of training performance and for assessment of performance in marine licensing. Chapter 6 examines the practice and appropriateness of using marine simulator-based training as a substitute for seagoing service to meet international standards for marine certification. Chapter 7 discusses the validity, validation, and assessment of simulators and simulation. Chapter 8 presents the committee's conclusions and recommendations. Appendix A contains brief biographical sketches of committee members. Appendices B-G provide essential background and contextual and technical information related to the analyses in the main body of the report.
REFERENCES
Allard, S.O. 1993. Pilot Training at the Panama Canal. Unpublished paper for the Committee on Ship-Bridge Simulation Training. Marine Board, National Research Council, Washington, D.C.
Anderson, D.B., T.L. Rice, R.G. Ross, J.D. Pendergraft, C.D. Kakusha, D.F. Meyers, S.J. Szczepaniak and P.A. Stutman. 1993 Licensing 2000 and Beyond. Washington, D.C.: Office of Marine Safety, Security, and Environmental Protection, U.S. Coast Guard.
Douwsma, D.G. 1993. Background paper: Shiphandling Simulation Training. Unpublished literature review prepared for the Committee on Ship-Bridge Simulation Training, Marine Board, National Research Council, Washington, D.C.
LIST OF BOXES, FIGURES, AND TABLES
BOXES
1-1 |
Selected Definitions |
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1-2 |
Mariner Professional Development: Training and Licensing |
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1-3 |
The National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) System of the United Kingdom |
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2-1 |
Marine Operations Bridge Simulators Classifications Proposed to International Maritime Organization (IMO) |
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2-2 |
Location of U.S. Facilities with Category I and Category II Simulators |
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3-1 |
Elements of Instructional Design Process |
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3-2 |
Training Insights from Mariner Instructors |
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3-3 |
Instructional Tasks |
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3-4 |
Samples of Instructor Training Programs, Maritime Academy Simulator Committee (MASC): Draft ''Train-the-Instructor" Course |
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3-5 |
Samples of Instructor Training Programs, The Southampton Institute, Warsash Maritime Centre, United Kingdom, Full-Mission Ship-Bridge Simulator |
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3-6 |
Samples of Instructor Training Programs: MarineSafety International Rotterdam |
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4-1 |
Computer-Generated Image (CGI) Projection Systems |
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5-1 |
Use of Simulators for Performance Evaluation: The Panama Canal Commission |
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5-2 |
Comments on Testing Pilots Using Simulators |
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5-3 |
Typical Summary of a Simulator-Based Check-Ride |
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7-1 |
Anchoring Evolutions: An example of Needed Research |
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F-1 |
Third Mate Observations on Value of Ship-Bridge Simulation Cadet Watchkeeping Course, U.S. Merchant Marine Academy |
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F-2 |
Observations of Panama Canal Pilots on the Value of Ship-Bridge Simulation Training |
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G-1 |
Testing Objectives for Mariner License Testing Devices |
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G-2 |
Development Criteria for U.S. Coast Guard License Testing Devices |
FIGURES
2-1 |
Types of Marine Simulators |
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2-2 |
View of the Bridge of a Full-Mission Simulator |
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2-3 |
View of the Bridge of a Full-Mission Simulator |
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2-4 |
Elements of a Sample PC-Based Simulator Program |
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2-5 |
Elements of a Sample PC-Based Simulator Program |
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2-6 |
An example of a Manned-Model Simulator |
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2-7 |
An Example of a Manned-Model Simulator |
3-1 |
The Training Process |
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4-1 |
Levels of Sophistication for Simulator Physical Components |
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4-2 |
Control and Monitoring Station |
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4-3 |
Estimate of Relative Importance of Ship-Bridge Equipment for Simulator Training |
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D-1 |
Paths of Stable and Unstable Ships after a Yaw Disturbance of 1 Degree |
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D-2 |
Steady Turning Rate Versus Rudder Angle |
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D-3 |
Spiral Test |
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D-4 |
Zig-zag Maneuver Response: 5-5 Degree |
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F-1 |
Cadet Watch Team Grading sheet |
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F-2 |
Cadet Watch Team Evaluation Sheet |
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F-3 |
Scores Achieved by 233 Cadet Watchkeeping Teams Undergoing a Simulation-Based Watchkeeping Course During the Period 1985–1994 |
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F-4 |
Plot of Standard Deviation for Simulation-Based Cadet Watchstanding Course |
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F-5 |
Average and Weighted Average Scores Per Drill of Simulation-Based Watchkeeping Training at the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy |
TABLES
1-1 |
Historical Inventory of World and U.S.-Flag Ocean Ships Over 1,000 Gross Tons |
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1-2 |
U.S. Coast Guard Ocean-Only License Statistics for Deck Department, Any Gross Tons, Fiscal Years 1986–1993 |
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1-3 |
U.S. Coast Guard Limited and Unlimited License Activity and Number of Facilities with Category I and Category II Simulators: Summarized by Region |
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1-4 |
U.S. Coast Guard Total Limited and Unlimited License, by Category, 1994 |
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D-1 |
Principal Particulars |