(Luder et al., 1989, 1990; Wiecha et al., 1991; Wolgemuth et al., 1992). The few studies of dietary intakes by single homeless women living in shelters found (1) low mean intakes of iron, calcium, magnesium, zinc, and folate (< 50 percent of Recommended Dietary Allowances [RDAs]) (Drake, 1992); and (2) higher than recommended fat intake (Drake, 1992); and (3) low average intake of servings in each of four food groups and a high intake of foods of low nutrient density (28 percent of total food intake) (Bunston and Breton, 1990).

Children. The socioeconomic, health, and nutrition problems faced by homeless women are exacerbated for their homeless infants and children. Homeless children are at increased risks of infectious diseases, growth and developmental delays, behavioral and emotional problems, and a host of other biologic and developmental insults.

The frequency of health problems among homeless children exceeds that of housed comparison groups or standard reference populations with places to live. In particular, homeless children have very high rates of delayed immunizations (Acker et al., 1987; Alperstein et al., 1988; Miller and Lin, 1988). Other health problems experienced by homeless children include a high reported rate of child abuse and neglect; a higher incidence of asthma; and increased risks of infectious disease, especially conjunctivitis, ringworm, gastrointestinal disorders, upper respiratory infections, and scabies and lice infestations (Khan, 1991). High proportions of homeless children and their families have no regular source of medical care, and they over-rely on hospital emergency rooms for primary health care (Hu et al., 1989; Roth and Fox, 1990; Wood and Valdez, 1991). Homeless children also suffer disproportionately from significant behavioral and developmental problems that affect their cognitive growth and development (Bassuk and Rubin, 1987; Bassuk et al., 1986; Eddins, 1993; Parker et al., 1991).

Studies examining measures of physical growth of homeless children provide mixed evidence on the prevalence of acute and chronic malnutrition. Those studies differ considerably on the basis of the geographic areas studied and the age groups examined, but together, they present a broad-based overview of the physical growth status of homeless children. Some studies of homeless children reported weight-for-height and height-for-age measurements similar to those for other low-income children, suggesting that malnutrition is not disproportionately prevalent among homeless children (Lewis and Meyers 1989; Alperstein et al., 1988; Wood et al., 1990). In contrast, one study of homeless children in New York City reported a higher than expected prevalence of stunting (low height-for-age) but not wasting (low weight-for-height), suggesting moderate, chronic malnutrition (Fierman et al., 1991). Another study of homeless preschoolers in Baltimore found a higher than expected prevalence of wasting, suggesting that some homeless children may have experienced acute undernutrition (Taylor and Koblinsky, 1993).