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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Improving America's Schools: The Role of Incentives. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5143.
×

Index

A

Accelerated Schools Project, 235-237

Access, 117-118

college enrollment, 150

minority enrollment trends, 158, 226

preschool enrollment, 148

quality schools, 134

secondary school enrollment, 148-150

trends, 148

Accountability

assessment-based, 171, 188-189, 191-192

average test score assessment, 213-214, 221

of school administration, 133-134

in school-based management, 76, 100-101

of teachers, 131-133, 137

test design and analysis for, 176-178

unmeasured outcomes and, 176

value-added assessment, 202

Active learning, 235

Adaptability, 234-235

Advanced Placement tests, 16

Algebra, 16

Assessment of schools

classroom-specific, 24

criteria for performance indicators, 197-198

cross-school comparison, 18, 207-210

dependent/independent variables, 23-25

examples of school-based management, 79-93

gain indicator, 216-218

implementing performance-based system, 48-49

implications of flawed practice, 218-219

inadequacies in, 21-22

management factors, 106-108

measures for, 148

reform outcomes, 21

standards for, 7-8, 12

for systemic reform, 5, 24-25

techniques, 199

See also School performance;

Value-added assessment

Assessment of students

adjustment of test scores, 179-180

as basis for educational reform, 173-174

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Improving America's Schools: The Role of Incentives. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5143.
×

conceptual and technical development, 172-174

for educator accountability, 171-172, 191-192

evaluation of system for, 190-191

improving test design for, 186-189

level indicators, 199

limitations, 103-104, 172, 178-180

negative effects on teaching, 184-186

role of achievement tests, 174-176

system design, 189-190

in systemic school reform, 5

test design and analysis, 176-178

thinking skills, 176

At-risk students

accelerated schools for, 235-237

cost-benefit analysis, 229-233

definition and characteristics of, 225-226

patterns of poverty, 227

preschool interventions for, 231-232

resource allocation for, 228-229

significance of, 226

social outcomes, 227-228

trends, 227

B

Board certification for teachers, 255

Britain

access to education, 117-118

examination system, 128-129, 137

secondary school admissions, 134-135

spending on education, 121-122

student achievement in, 112-116

student body diversity, 116-117

teacher accountability, 137

teaching practice, 122-125

teaching profession, 118-121

C

Class size

international comparison, 121

resource efficiency and, 6-7

spending to decrease, 151

student performance and, 22, 38

Clinton administration, 9-14

College(s)

admission standards for teachers, 119

admissions criteria, 129, 133

attainment trends, 1, 2-3

employment outcomes related to, 55-73

enrollment trends, 150

student loans, 9-11

Cost-benefit analysis, 6, 8, 41

dropout prevention, 229-231

interventions with at-risk populations, 232-233

preschool programs, 231-232

Creaming, 185-186, 219, 220

Criminal behavior, 154

prospects for at-risk students, 228

school trends, 158-160

Curriculum design

depth of content, 16

in performance-based incentive systems, 49

in school-based management, 77

student capacity to learn, 15-16

D

Dade County, Florida, 82-90

Dropout rate, 148-150, 153, 226

economic outcomes, 230-231

high school interventions, 229-231

preschool intervention, 231-232

Drugs in schools, 159-160

E

Economic analysis

as basis for reform effort, 29-30

of educational issues, 142-143

of human capital, 1-2

implications of at-risk student populations, 227-228

lack of, in reform effort, 8

measures for school assessment, 23

outcomes for high-school dropouts, 230-231

potential for crisis in school system, 35

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Improving America's Schools: The Role of Incentives. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5143.
×

research support for systemic reform, 5-6, 8

school governance models, 75-76

See also Investment in education

Educational attainment

of at-risk students, 226, 227

benefits of, 31

earnings correlated with, 31, 32, 53

macroeconomic effects, 32-33

market trends vs., as employment factor, 62-73

of parents, and participation in educational system, 101

preschool education and, 231-232

prospects for at-risk students, 227-228

relative wage correlations, 55-62

of teachers, student performance and, 22-23

trends, 1, 2-3, 53-54, 73, 150

Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), 3, 4, 6, 172-173

academic standards, 13-14, 20

reauthorization, 12-14, 18-19

state autonomy, 19

systemic school reform and, 5

Title I, 13-14, 173

Employment and income

career decisions of teachers, 242-250

cohort patterns, 57-58

educational attainment and, 31, 32, 53, 73

employer hiring behaviors, 133

employment opportunities for teachers, 247, 248

income trends, 161, 162

labor market shifts, 54, 153-154

occupational shifts related to educational attainments, 66-72

prospects for at-risk students, 227-228

prospects for high-school dropouts, 230-231

quantification of human capital investment, 2

relative wages related to educational attainments, trends in, 55-62

student preparation for labor market, 153-154

trends, 53-54

working mothers, 160

ESEA. See Elementary and Secondary Education Act

F

France, 141

access to education, 117-118

examination system, 128-129

repeating a grade in, 138, 139

secondary school admissions, 134

spending on education, 121-122

student achievement, 112-116

student body diversity, 116-117

student specialization, 139, 140

teaching practice, 122-125

teaching profession, 118-121

G

Gender issues, 58-59, 153

General Educational Development (GED) certificate, 150

Goal setting

adaptability in, 234-235

choice of specialization, 139-140

goal achievement and, 30, 135-137

for performance-based incentives, 103-104, 105

qualities of efficient organizations, 234

for systemic reform, 5

Goals 2000, 6

academic standards, 12, 20

criticism of, 3-4

goals of, 3, 12

rationale, 18-19

resource allocation, 14

systemic school reform and, 5

underlying assumptions of, 46-47

Grading on curve, 12, 130

H

Head Start, 148, 164, 166

Health care, school-based, 166

High school

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Improving America's Schools: The Role of Incentives. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5143.
×

attainment trends, 1, 2-3

competitive admissions, 134

enrollment trends, 148-150

international comparison, 111, 141-142

interventions with at-risk students, 229-231

occupational education and training, 11-12

teacher compensation, 119

teacher training, 119, 121

I

Improving America's Schools Act, 12-14

Information management

data needs for value-added assessment, 204-205, 206-207, 210-211, 220-221

needs of efficient organizations, 234

for school-based management, 106

International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievements, findings of, 112-116

International comparisons

access to quality education, 134

economic competition, 32-33

educational spending, 121-122

examination systems, 128-129

extent of student performance differences, 111, 112-116

external assessment, 133-134

possible causes of student performance differences, 116-125

redoublement/repeating a grade, 137-139

secondary school admissions, 134-135

significant features of European practice, 141-143

standard setting for external exams, 135-137

student assessment, 112

student engagement, 124-125

student performance, 35-36

student time on task, 122-124

teaching environment, 131-133

teaching profession, 118-121

See also Britain: France;

Netherlands

Investment in education

benefits for individual, 31

community economic status and, 162-163

cost-benefit analysis, 6

distribution of spending, 121-122, 151

expenditures per pupil, 23, 33, 35, 121, 151, 162-163

international comparison, 121

an investment in human capital, 1-2

macroeconomic considerations, 32

policymaking environment, 4

preventive interventions with at-risk students, 229-233

scope of economic analysis, 31

significance of at-risk population, 226

social rationale, 31, 151-154

trends, 30, 33-40, 150-151

Investment in human capital

vs. investment in tangible assets, 2

J

Jones, Adele, 132

L

Language issues, 158

Level indicators, 199, 218-219

M

Minimum competency testing, 173

Monroe County, Florida, 90-92

Motivation to learn

peer group norms, 130-131

standards of external exams and, 135-137

teacher qualities related to, 17

threat of repeating a grade, 138-139

N

National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, 255

National Education Goals. See Goals 2000

National Teacher's Examination (NTE), 245-246, 249

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Improving America's Schools: The Role of Incentives. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5143.
×

Netherlands, 141-142

access to education, 117-118

examination system, 128-129, 137

repeating a grade in, 138-139

secondary school admissions, 134

spending on education, 121-122

student achievement, 112-116

student body diversity, 116-117

student specialization, 139-140

teaching practice, 122-125

teaching profession, 118-121

NTE. See National Teachers' Examination

O

Occupational education and training, 11-12

P

Panel on the Economics of Education Reform (PEER), 4, 6, 8, 171

Parents and families of students

characteristics of at-risk students, 226-227

community-family partnerships, 163-164

ethnic differences, 158

influence on child outcomes, 154-155, 157

participation in educational system, 99-102

school-based training programs for, 166

school-family partnerships, 164

single parent families, 161-162

trends related to school performance, 160-162

in value-added assessment model, 200-201

working mothers, 160

PEER. See Panel on the Economics of Education Reform

Performance-based incentives, 7, 41-43

basic features, 42-43

with disadvantaged students, 46

distortion problems, 104

in efficient organizations, 234

evaluation of effectiveness, 44, 45

goal-setting, 103-104, 105

implementation, 44-45, 47-50

management structure for, 48-49

measurement problems, 103-104

merit pay systems, 252

performance standards for, 47, 103

potential problems of, 103-105

quality of assessment data for, 219

rationale, 41, 46, 105

research support for, 48

school-based management with, 93, 98, 103, 105-106

for teacher licensing, 252-253, 254-255, 256

Performance standards

achievement related to difficulty of, 135-137

for assessment of schools, 7-8, 12

conceptual and technical development, 173

criteria for, as assessment indicators, 197-198

criterion-referenced/norm-referenced, 173

current conceptualization, 174

decentralized decision-making for, 126

equality in implementation, 20

in ESEA, 13-14, 20

federal guidelines, 20

in Goals 2000, 12, 20

high-quality examples, 20

incentives to lower, 131-132

performance-based incentives and, 47, 103

political environment, 135

prospects for, as assessment indicators, 188-189

school administrator behaviors, 133-134

signaling effects, 125-129

state and local autonomy, 7-8, 14-15, 19, 20

for systemic reform, 20

for teacher training, 253

for Title I students, 13-14, 173

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 92

Policymaking

assessment-based, 173

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Improving America's Schools: The Role of Incentives. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5143.
×

attracting skilled teachers, 250-256

based on flawed indicators, 218-219

Clinton administration, 9-14

economic considerations, 4

implementation through incentive, 7-8

political environment of standard setting, 135

value-added assessment, 204

Praxis I/II, 246

Preschool enrollment, 148, 155, 166

long-term benefits, 231-232

Primary school

international comparison of student performance, 111, 116

teacher compensation, 120

Private-public partnerships

community-family, 163-164

effectiveness, 165-166

objectives, 147

in performance-based incentive systems, 49

prospects, 166

rationale, 154-157

school-community, 164-165

school-family, 164

tradition, 147

trends, 147

Production function. See School performance

Productivity

educational factors in, 32-33

implications of at-risk student populations, 227-228

international comparison, 32

Property rights, 1

Q

Quality of education

access, 134

economic outcomes and, 32-33

R

Race/ethnicity

academic performance, 36-37, 150, 153

at-risk populations, 226-227

diversity of student body as performance factor, 116-117

dropout rate, 150, 153, 226

economic trends, 161

education majors, 247

English as second language, 158

income related to educational attainment, 58-59

labor market correlations, 54

minority enrollment trends, 158, 226

parenting styles, 158

peer group influences on academic performance, 130

Reform efforts

assessment-based accountability as basis for, 173-174

assessment systems for, 171-172

of Clinton administration, 9-14

community-family partnerships for, 163-164

community involvement, rationale for, 154-157

economic analysis for, 8, 29-30

effects on educational outcomes, 21

experimental research for, 44

goal setting, 5

incentive-based, 7-8, 41-43

obstacles to, 18, 45-46

political context, 142

prospects, 49-50, 142

recent history, 3-4, 29

school-based management, 76-79

school-community partnerships for, 164-165

school-family partnerships for, 164

significance of European practice, 141-143

spending reform for, 50

spending trends, 151

See also Systemic school reform

Repeating a grade, 137-139

Resource allocation and use

adaptability, 234-235

for at-risk populations, 228-229

class size and, 6-7

current inefficiency, 30, 40-41

economic analysis of schools, 6

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Improving America's Schools: The Role of Incentives. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5143.
×

educational spending trends, 150-151

for implementing school-based management, 78, 81

meaning of efficiency in, 41

measurement techniques, 23

motivation for efficiency, 39

non-instructional salary expenditures, 35, 121-122

qualities of efficient organizations, 233-235

recommendations for reform, 50

school performance and, 23-24

for special needs students, 4-5

state and local decision-making, 14, 15

for systemic reform, 5

use of teacher's time in school-based management, 102

S

SATs

performance trends, 150

scores of education majors, 244

School administration

accountability, 133-134

adaptability, 234-235

autonomy, 8

cost of, 35

limitations of decentralized decision-making, 98-103

local political environment, 107

obstacles to assessment, 106-108

parental involvement, 99-102

participatory decision-making, 17, 44-45

performance-based contracts for teachers, 7

performance-based incentives for improving, 7

qualities of efficient organizations, 233-235

rationale for district-level governance, 75

student performance linkage, 107

See also School-based management

School-based management

accountability in, 100-101

authority structure, 77-78, 80-81

evaluation criteria, 93, 106-107

examples of implementation, 79-80

expertise of participants in, 99-100

information needs, 106

objectives, 79, 81

parental participation, 99-102

participants in decision-making, 99

performance-based incentives in, 93, 98, 103, 105-106

rationale for, 75-76, 98-103

research needs, 93, 97-98, 106-108

resources for implementation, 78, 81

socioeconomic setting, 100-102, 107

student outcomes, 80, 81-93, 98, 102, 103

teacher autonomy in, 99

teacher participation in, 99, 100

School choice

at-risk students and, 237

effects of flawed assessment data, 218-219

as incentive for student performance, 7

student performance and, 134-135

School performance

class size and, 6-7, 22

community inputs, trends in, 162-163

community outcomes affected by, 157

economic analysis, 142-143

family inputs, trends in, 160-162

incentives for, 7, 40

measurement, 7, 21-25

outcome-based incentives for, 41-43

public knowledge, 133-134

social trends related to, 157-160

student outcomes affected by, 155

teacher training and, 7

trends, 148-150, 157-158

See also Assessment of schools;

Value-added assessment

School-to-Work Act, 11-12

Single-parent families, 161-162, 227

Sociocultural factors

commitment to education, 111-112

discouragement of student performance, 112

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Improving America's Schools: The Role of Incentives. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5143.
×

public knowledge of school performance, 133-134

threat of repeating a grade, 138-139

Socioeconomic factors in analysis of standardized test performance, 177

at-risk populations, 226, 227

in child outcomes, 154-157

community trends, 162-163

minority student performance, 158

parent participation in educational system, 100-102

rationale for investing in education, 31

in school-based management outcomes, 100-102, 107

in student performance, 23-24, 36-37, 153-154, 226

students in poverty, 158, 227

Special needs students expenditures, 23

in performance-based incentive systems, 46, 49

resource allocation, 4-5

See also At-risk students

Specialization, student, 139-140

Standardized testing

achievement related to difficulty of, 135-137

adjustment of test scores, 179-180

aggregate/average scores, limitations of, 199, 213-218, 221

appropriate use of, for assessment, 189-193

assessment goals, 174-176

conceptual and technical development, 172-174

control of test-taking pool, 185-186, 219

corruptibility, 180, 198

curriculum-based, 126

degradation of instruction as result of, 184-186

design and analytical methods, 176-178

improving design and administration of, 186-189

inflation of scores, 181-184, 186-187

as instrument of accountability, 171-172

limitations, 178-180

as measure of school performance, 23-24, 199

prospects for external exams, 142

racial/ethnic differences, 36-37

signaling effects, 125-126

socioeconomic variables, 177

student performance related to system of, 125-129

in systemic discouragement of student performance, 112

for teacher licensing, 245-246

teaching to the test, 173-174, 181-184, 185, 219

validity, 188-189, 197-198

variation across tests, 178-179

State and local decision-making

for implementing incentive-based system, 48-49

implementing value-added assessment, 220-221

rationale for centralized school governance, 75

regulatory relief, 14

resource use, 14

for setting performance standards, 7-8, 14-15, 19, 20

student performance outcomes and, 21

in systemic school reform, 13, 14-15, 18-19

Statewide Systemic Initiative, 19

Student aid, 9-11

Student performance

academic standards for Title I students, 13-14

academic standards of Goals 2000, 12

access to education and, 117-118

achievement related to external standards, 135-137

capacity to learn, 15-16

causes of international disparities, 116-125

class size and, 22, 38-39

classroom engagement and, 124-125

college acceptance criteria, 129

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Improving America's Schools: The Role of Incentives. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5143.
×

determinants of, 39-40, 44, 107, 154-157

examination system as factor in, 125-129

extent of international disparities, 111, 112-116

external factors, 23-24

graded on curve, 130

incentives for, 7, 40, 43

inter-school comparison, 18

international comparison, 35-36

limitations of assessment, 103-104, 112, 172

peer group norms, 130-131

quality of teaching and, 17

racial/ethnic differences, 36-37, 158

in school-based management systems, 80, 81-93, 98, 102

school choice and, 134-135

school management linkage, 107

school reform and, 21

school spending and, 35, 37, 38-40

sociocultural factors, 111-112

specialization as factor in, 140

spending trends targeted to, 151

student body diversity and, 116-117

systemic pressures for discouragement of, 112

teacher accountability, 131-133

teacher incentives based on, 41-43, 121

teacher training and, 22-23, 38-39

time on task and, 122-124

trends, 35, 150

value-added assessment model, 200-201

See also Assessment of students

Student-teacher ratio. See Class size

Systemic school reform

assessment techniques for, 24-25

basic concepts, 4-5, 14-15

conditions for success, 19-20

implementation, 15, 19

policymaking environment, 6

program coordination for, 13

rationale, 5, 18-19

research base for, 5-6, 15-18

state and local autonomy, 14-15

T

Teach for America, 242-243

Teacher compensation/incentives

attracting skilled teachers, 250-256

career decisions of teachers, 242-250

competitiveness with other sectors, 34

employment duration and, 248-249

for fields with shortages, 254

flexibility in, 254

international comparison, 119-121

market demand for teachers, 247-248

master's degree in education and, 251-252

merit pay systems, 252

objectives, 241, 252

opportunities for research, 255

performance-based approaches, 7, 42-43, 48

for professional development, 255

salaries, 248, 253-255

student performance and, 121

teacher mobility and, 248

trends, 7, 33-34, 35, 151

Teacher-student ratios. See Class size

Teacher training

board certification, 255

enrollment trends, 243

international comparison, 119

licensing requirements, 242-243, 244-246

master's degrees, 22, 38, 251-252

minority enrollments, 247

performance-based licensing, 252-253, 254-255, 256

as predictor of teacher effectiveness, 242

quality of trainees, 247-248

student performance and, 22-23, 38

subject matter expertise, 119

for systemic school reform, 5, 17, 20

trends, 7

Teaching practice

accountability of teachers, 131-133, 137

active learning, 235

employment trends, 247

international comparisons, 122-125

measures of quality, 242-243

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Improving America's Schools: The Role of Incentives. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5143.
×

negative effects of test-based accountability, 184-186

participation in administration, 17

in performance-based incentive systems, 104

predictors of effectiveness, 242

in school-based management system, 99, 100, 102

student engagement, 124-125

student performance and, 17, 22, 241

student time on task, 122-124

support for, 20

for systemic school reform, 17-18

teacher autonomy, 99

teaching to the test, 173-174, 181-184, 185, 219

work loads, international comparison, 120-121

Teen pregnancy/parenting, 154, 158, 162

school-based programs for, 166

Title I program, 13-14, 173

V

Value-added assessment, 7, 44, 172, 221-222

analytical method, 205-210

benchmark measures, 201

conditional mean format, 201-202

control variables, 210-211

current implementation, 220

data collection for, 204-205, 206-207, 210-211, 220-221

external school inputs, 203

heterogeneous slope models, 211-214

intrinsic performance indicators, 202-204, 206

predicted mean method, 201

public understanding of, 205

rationale, 172

reliability, 211

role of, 198

sample size, 204

school performance expectations and, 219-220

standard error, 211

statistical techniques, 199-205

total performance indicator, 201, 202

Type A indicator, 201

underlying assumptions, 209-210

vs. average test score assessment, 213-216

Violence in schools, 158-159

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1996. Improving America's Schools: The Role of Incentives. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5143.
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Improving America's Schools: The Role of Incentives Get This Book
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Reform of American education is largely motivated by concerns about our economic competitiveness and American's standard of living. Yet, few if any of the public school reform agendas incorporate economic principles or research findings. Improving America's Schools explores how education and economic research can help produce, in the words of Harvard's Dale W. Jorgenson, "a unified framework for future education reform." This book presents the perspectives of noted experts, including Eric A. Hanushek, author of Making Schools Work, on creating incentives for improved school and student performance; Under Secretary of Education Marshall S. Smith on the Clinton Administration's reform program; and Rebecca Maynard, University of Pennsylvania, on the education of the disadvantaged. This volume explores these areas:

  • The importance of schooling to labor market success.
  • The prospects for combining school-based management with teacher incentives to gain the best of both approaches.
  • The potential of recent innovations in student achievement testing, including new "value-added" indicators.
  • The economic factors involved in maintaining an adequate stock of effective teachers.

The volume also explores why, despite similar standards of living, France, the Netherlands, England, Scotland, and the United States produce different levels of education achievement. Improving America's Schools informs the current debate over school reform with a fresh perspective, examples, and data. This readable volume will be of interest to policymakers, researchers, educators, and education administrators as well as economists and employers—it is also readily accessible to concerned parents and the larger community.

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