Index
A
Activated alumina systems, 5, 97-99, 117, 119
testing, 140
Activated carbon use, 5, 58, 85-87, 117, 119, 123
sandwich filter, 111
testing, 139-140
Adsorption systems, 84-87, 128
testing, 139-140
Aeration systems, 4, 71-72, 89-93, 117
mechanisms for, 90
testing, 138
Air stripping. See Aeration systems
Aldehydes, 68
Algae, 76, 100-101, 105, 107, 110, 133
testing for removal of, 142
Allocation decisions, delays in, 27
Alumina. See Activated alumina systems
American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 135-136
American Water Works Association (AWWA), 10, 16-17, 127, 150, 155, 188, 190-191, 203
Ammonia use, 68-69
Amphoteric properties, 97
Anion exchange. See Ion exchange systems
ANSI. See American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
Antiscalant chemical use, 77, 84
Appraisals. See Performance appraisals
Arizona (Tucson), 99
Army Corps of Engineers, 127
Association of State Drinking Water Administrators (ASDWA), 19, 189 -190
Atrazine, 32
Automatic monitoring devices, 68
Availability. See Water sources
AWWA. See American Water Works Association (AWWA)
B
Backsiphonage of contaminants, 27, 40
Back-up provisions. See Small water supply systems, emergency back-up provisions
Backwashing, 77, 80, 86, 102, 106
Bacteria, 63, 66, 76, 80, 90, 101, 107, 112
See also Coliform bacteria
Bag filter systems, 5, 112-114
changing filter bags, 113-114
for pretreatment, 76
testing, 145
Barium, 96
Biological filtration, 66, 85, 109-110
Biological instability of water, 66
Bromate, 68
C
Cadmium, 96
Calcium carbonate, 71-73, 77, 87, 93
California, Desert Center, 98
California Department of Health Services (DHS), 122-123, 139
Canada, Montreal, 41
Capital requirements
funding improvements, 2-3, 167-168
varying with technology used, 60-62
Carbon dioxide (CO2), 71, 73, 89, 93
Carbonate, 95
Carcinogens, 32
Cartridge filter systems, 5, 112-114
changing filter cartridges, 113-114
testing, 145
Cash reserves, 165
Cation exchange. See Ion exchange systems
Cellulose acetate membranes, 73
Centers for Disease Control, 35-37, 40
Centralized operation, 114-116
remote monitoring and control, 114-116
Chemical contaminants. See Contaminants
Chemical disinfection. See Disinfection systems
Chemical feeders, 72
Chemical poisoning, acute, 38-40
Chloramine treatment, 63, 66, 69, 71, 128
Chlorate, 68
Chlorine dioxide treatment 63, 66, 69
Chlorine treatment, 63, 66, 69, 71, 90, 94-95, 128
Chromate, 95
See also Dichromate
Chromium, trivalent, 96
Coagulation/filtration systems, 5, 100-103.
See also Dissolved air flotation (DAF) systems
shutdown precautions required, 102
testing, 140-144
Color, testing for removal of, 142
Colorado, Blue Mountain Subdivision, 93, 97
Committee on Small Water Supply Systems, 2, 13, 201
Communications format, standardizing, 116
Community Involvement Opportunities in Water-Wastewater Services, 180
Community water systems. See Small water supply systems;
Water supply systems
Competitive adsorption, 86
of ions, 5
Computer-based training, 202
Concentrate disposal. See Disposal
Consolidating small water systems, 14-15, 18, 43-44, 166-167
Contaminants.
See also Turbidity chemical, 31-35
microbiological, 28-31, 49, 99, 128
number regulated, 15-18
underestimated, 30
Contract services, 177-179
Copper sulfate use, 90
Corrosion control systems, 6, 58, 71-73
testing, 147
Cross-connections, preventing, 40, 117
Cryptosporidium, 29-30, 42, 63, 76, 99-101, 105-107, 111-115, 144-145
CT values (concentration x time), 67, 69, 76, 111, 146-147
Cyanogen chloride, 68
Cysts. See Giardia
D
DAF. See Dissolved air flotation (DAF) systems
Data collection, 137
centralizing, 148-149
D/DBP. See Disinfection/Disinfectant Byproducts (D/DBP) Rule
DE. See Diatomaceous earth (DE) filtration systems
Department of Interior, 127
Desorption, 86
Developer cost-cutting, 25, 43
DHS. See California Department of Health Services (DHS)
Diatomaceous earth (DE) filtration systems, 5, 106-109
cleaning filter leaves, 107-108
testing, 144
Dichromate, 95
Direct filtration, 140-141.
See also Coagulation/filtration systems
Disease. See Waterborne disease
Disinfectant residual, maintaining, 66-67, 89
Disinfection, natural, 89
Disinfection systems, 5-6, 19, 48, 58, 63, 66-71, 128.
See also Electrolytic generation of mixed disinfectants
dispersal requirements, 69-70
testing, 146-147
Disinfection/Disinfectant Byproducts (D/DBP) Rule, 67-68
Dissolved air flotation (DAF) systems, 103-106
excessive turbulence in, 106
Distillation systems, 123
standards for, 135
Distribution system residual. See Disinfectant residual, maintaining
Drinking water safety. See Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)
E
Economies of scale, 2.
See also Consolidating small water systems
ED/EDR. See Electrodialysis (ED) & electrodialysis reversal (EDR) systems
Education for water system operators
See Operator training
Electric Power Research Institute, 180
Electrochemical separation. See Electrodialysis (ED)/electrodialysis reversal (EDR) systems
Electrodialysis (ED)/electrodialysis reversal (EDR) systems, 81-84
energy requirements, 84
pretreatment required, 82
Electrolytic generation of mixed disinfectants, 66
Electrostatic attraction, 95
Emergencies, provision for. See Small water supply systems, emergency back-up provisions
Emergency reserve fund, 165
Emergency Water Supply Plan, 127
Endemic disease, underreported, 40-41
England and Wales, 14-15
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2, 6, 10, 12-14, 22, 30, 35 -37, 40, 48, 66-67, 122, 127, 136, 148-150, 201-204
Environmental Technology Verification Program, 135
Epidemiologic investigations, 35-38
Equalization tank use, 70
Equipment testing protocols. See Testing protocols
F
FDA. See Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
Federal funding programs, 168
Federal Reporting Data System, 187
Fees. See Rate structure
Filter cartridges, variability in pore size, 112
Filtration. See Coagulation/filtration systems;
Membrane filtration systems
Financial viability of communities, 24-28, 164-166
borrowing ability, 25
community income levels, 24-25, 154
unemployment rates, 25
Flocculation, 100-101, 104, 106
Florida, 81
Fluoride, 32, 38, 89, 95, 98, 128
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 127
Formazin turbidity unit (FTU), 111-112
G
GAC (granular activated carbon). See Activated carbon use
Gas-permeable membrane systems, 90, 92
Giardia, 30, 41-42, 63, 69, 76, 87, 99-101, 107, 110-115, 139, 144 -146
Gray water, 86
Ground water.
See also Water sources, surface versus ground sources of contamination, 89
Ground Water Disinfection Rule (GWDR), 88
H
Haloacetic acids (HAAs), 68
Health protection. See Public health, protecting
Hepatitis A, 35
Heterotrophic plate count level, 89
Hydrated lime, 87
I
Illinois
Village of Aroma Park, 26
Wenona, 81
Internet, exchanging information on, 6
Interstate Quarantine Act of 1893, 16
Ion exchange systems, 5, 95-97, 117, 119, 123
ion breakthrough, 97
regenerating exchange resins, 95, 119
standards for, 135
testing, 140
oxidized, 87
Irradiation. See Ultraviolet (UV) light disinfection
J
Joint operating agreements, 179
L
Leadership, need for, 183
Lime softening systems, 5, 87-88
testing, 145-146
Limestone contractors. See Calcium carbonate
M
Maintenance costs, funding, 169
Maximum containment levels (MCLs), 16-21, 29-32, 121-122, 161
determined, 32
Median household income (MHHI), 166
Membrane filtration systems, 4-5, 73-78, 88, 123
membrane construction, 74-75
membrane replacement, 77
pretreatment required, 76
selective membrane use. See Electrodialysis (ED)/electrodialysis
reversal (EDR) systems
semipermeable membrane use. See Reverse osmosis systems
testing, 138-139
MHHI. See Median household income (MHHI)
Microbiological contaminants. See Contaminants
Microfiltration, 138.
See also Membrane filtration systems
Mixed disinfectants. See Electrolytic generation of mixed disinfectants
Molecular weight cutoff (MWCO), 73, 76-77
Monitoring, remote. See Remote monitoring
Monitoring requirements, 29, 30, 64-68, 72, 77, 80, 84-88, 92, 95-98, 101-102, 105-108, 113-114, 119-123
Multiple barrier approach, 41
Multiple disinfectants. See Electrolytic generation of mixed disinfectants
MWCO. See Molecular weight cutoff (MWCO)
N
Nanofiltration. See Membrane filtration systems
National Contingency Plan, 127
National Drinking Water Clearinghouse (NDWC), 4, 6, 148, 150-151
National Environmental Training Center for Small Communities (NETCSC) , 10, 192, 202-204
National Research Council (NRC), 2, 12-13, 16
National Rural Electrification Cooperative Association (NRECA), 180
National Rural Utilities Cooperative Finance Corporation, 180
National Rural Water Association, 10, 190-191
National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) International, 3-4, 6, 123, 135-136, 150
NDWC. See National Drinking Water Clearinghouse (NDWC)
NETCSC. See National Environmental Training Center for Small Communities (NETCSC)
Nevada, Las Vegas, 30
Nitrate, 32, 38, 40, 89, 95, 115, 128
Nonproliferation, encouraging. See Consolidating small water systems
NRC. See National Research Council (NRC)
NRECA. See National Rural Electrification Cooperative Association (NRECA)
NSF. See National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) International
NTC. See National Training Coalition (NTC)
O
Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, 150
Oocysts. See Cryptosporidium
Operating costs, 64-65
funding, 169
Operating data, relaying. See Remote monitoring
Operating requirements, 68-72, 77, 80, 84-88, 92, 95-98, 101-102, 105-108, 113-114
records of, 162-163
Operator certification requirements, 189-190
Operator skill levels required, 59, 64-65, 128, 147-148, 193-201
Operator training, 9-10, 187-204
model program for, 199-201
Organic contaminants, 5
causing oxidant demand, 94
removal by adsorption, 58, 85-86
Orthophosphate use, 71-72
Oxidation/filtration systems, 93-95
Ozone treatment, 63, 66, 68-69, 94, 128
small package systems, 70-71
P
PAC (powdered activated carbon). See Activated carbon use
Package water treatment plants, 3, 6, 58, 103, 132
third party certification of, 3-4, 123, 133-136, 149
See also Cryptosporidium;Giardia
Pathogenic organisms
underestimated, 30
unknown, 38
Pennsylvania, Village of Onnalinda, 28
Performance appraisals, 7-9, 158-166, 185
model for, 160
pH meters, 148
calibrating, 88
Pilot testing, site-specific, 3-4, 6, 133-134, 138, 149
streamlining for package water treatment plants, 12-13
Pink water, 95
Planning. See Small water supply systems, comprehensive planning for
Plate count level, 89
POE. See Point-of-entry (POE) devices
Point-of-entry (POE) devices, 3, 6, 116-117, 119-125, 128, 135
Point-of-use (POU) devices, 3, 6, 116-125, 128-129, 135
Polarity reversal, 82
Poliovirus, 101
Political considerations, 182-184
Polymer membranes, 73
Polyphosphate use, 71-72
Population, changes in, 154-155
Posttreating water, 80
Potassium permanganate treatment, 94-95
POU. See Point-of-use (POU) devices
Powdered activated carbon (PAC). See Activated carbon use
Power utilities involvement, 180
Preengineered process equipment. See Package water treatment plants
Pressure-driven membrane filtration systems, 73, 76-77, 107.
See also Reverse osmosis systems
Pretreating water, 76, 82, 101, 104
Proliferation of small water systems, 27.
See also Consolidating small water systems
See also Cryptosporidium;
Giardia
Public water supply systems. See Water supply systems
Public-private partnerships, 176
R
Radiation. See Ultraviolet (UV) light disinfection
Radionuclides, 96-97
Rapid-rate filtration, 100
Raw water. See Water sources
Receivership, 176-177
Recommendations, 150-152, 185-186, 204
Red water, 71
Regional planning, 14, 156-158, 180-181
Registry of Equipment Suppliers of Treatment Technologies for Small Systems (RESULTS) database, 4, 6, 148, 151
Regulations. See Water supply regulations
Remote monitoring, 103, 114-115
Replacement schedules, 120
Resanding, 111
Residuals. See Disinfectant residual, maintaining
Resin beads. See Ion exchange systems
Restructuring arrangements, 8-9, 154, 169, 175-183
agents involved, 179-181
barriers to, 181-183
RESULTS. See Registry of Equipment Suppliers of Treatment Technologies for Small Systems (RESULTS) database
Revenues, operating, 2, 7, 165
Reverse osmosis systems, 78-81, 88, 117, 119, 123, 128
fouling of, 80
membrane replacement, 80
posttreatment required, 80
shutdown precautions required, 80-81
standards for, 135
testing, 139
Risk assessment, 32
Roughing filter processes, 101, 103
Rural Community Assistance Program, 10
S
Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), 2-4, 7-12, 16-19, 22, 48, 58, 82, 116, 127-128, 132, 152, 164, 187, 201
compliance with, 28-32, 35, 158
contaminants regulated under, 20-21
exceeding requirements of, 132-133
Safe Drinking Water Hotline, 150
Saltwater intrusion, 89
Sampling representative households, 121-122
Sandwich filter, 111
Sanitary surveys, 8
SCADA. See Supervisory control and automatic data acquisition (SCADA)
See also Antiscalant chemical use
Schmutzdecke buildup, 109
SDWA. See Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)
Sedimentation, 100-101
alternative to, 104
Service contracts, rapid-response, 148
Site-specific testing. See Pilot testing, site-specific
Skill levels required. See Operator skill levels required
Slow sand filtration systems, 5, 109-112, 128
testing, 144-145
Small Community Environmental Training: Trends-Issues, 192
Small System Hotline, 150
Small water supply systems.
See also Technologies for small water supply systems
adequacy of, 41-44
comprehensive planning for, 161-164
defining, 13
determining value of, 175-176
emergency back-up provisions, 163-164
federal funding programs for, 168
higher costs of, 26
maintenance of, 42.
See also Operating requirements
methods suited to, 78, 81, 84, 87, 95, 98-99, 108, 112, 114, 124-125
numbers of, 12-15
state funding programs for, 170-174
training operators for, 9-10, 187-204.
See also Operator skill levels required
upgrading, 44
Sodium chloride
generating chlorine from, 66
removal. See Desalination
Sodium hydroxide, 98
Softening membranes, 76
Spectrophotometry, 67
SRF. See State revolving fund (SRF) awards
Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 137
State funding programs, 170-174
State regulatory agencies, 2, 6-7, 27-29, 133-136, 151-152, 166-167.
See also California Department of Health Services (DHS)
reluctance to use data from other states, 134, 149
State revolving fund (SRF) awards, 9, 159, 168, 182-183
Statewide planning, 156-158
Storage requirements, 109-110
Streaming current detectors, 148
Supervisory control and automatic data acquisition (SCADA), 115
Surface water, 99.
See also Water sources, surface versus ground
Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR), 99-101, 109, 111, 128, 134
Sustainability. See Small water supply systems, sustaining
SWTR. See Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR)
System sustainability. See Small water supply systems, sustaining
T
Task Force on Drinking Water Construction Funding and Regionalization, 13
Tax incentives, 9
Technologies for small water supply systems, 3-7, 48-131
changing, 58-59
evaluating, 132-152
list of, by contaminant type, 50-57
operational considerations, 64-65.
See also Operating requirements
Telemetry devices. See Remote monitoring
Temperature effects, 67, 73, 101, 137
Test kits, 67
Testing protocols, 4, 6, 136-137, 151-152
Texas
City of San Antonio, 155
Spicewood, 97
THMs. See Trihalomethanes (THMs)
Total water management, 155
Trihalomethanes (THMs), 19, 68
Turbidimeters, continuous, 102, 148
Turbidity, 49, 72, 82, 88, 99-102, 105, 133.
See also Formazin turbidity unit (FTU)
testing for removal of, 142
U
Ultrafiltration. See Membrane filtration systems
Ultraviolet (UV) light disinfection, 63, 68, 70, 119, 123
life span of lamps, 119
standards for, 135
Uranium, 97
V
Vacuum filters, 107
Video training, 202
Violations of water quality standards, 7, 187
Viruses, 17, 30, 63, 66, 76, 80, 99-101, 112-114, 139
Vomiting, 38
W
Waivers, temporary, 9
Wales. See England and Wales
Washington, Kitsap County, 26-27
Waste disposal. See Disposal
Water pressure, low, 27
Water quality
declining, 41
failures of, 28
sampling for, 143
Water Quality Association (WQA), 123
Water sources, 162
availability of, 155
surface versus ground, 3, 48-49, 64-65, 68, 87-89, 99
Water supply regulations.
See also Environmental Protection Agency (EPA);
Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA);
State regulatory agencies
increasing numbers of, 15-18
Water supply systems, 14-16
classes of, 14
communities lacking, 26-27
failures of, 28
sustaining. See Small water supply systems, sustaining
Waterborne disease outbreaks, 1, 8, 12, 27-28, 30, 35-41, 103
problems interpreting data about, 40
underreported, 40-41
use of bottled water during, 127
Western States Protocol, 134
Wisconsin, Milwaukee, 29-30
WQA. See Water Quality Association (WQA)