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« Previous: Appendix: Committee on Small Water Supply Systems Biographical Information
Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1997. Safe Water From Every Tap: Improving Water Service to Small Communities. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5291.
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Index

A

Activated alumina systems, 5, 97-99, 117, 119

testing, 140

Activated carbon use, 5, 58, 85-87, 117, 119, 123

sandwich filter, 111

testing, 139-140

Adsorption systems, 84-87, 128

testing, 139-140

Aeration systems, 4, 71-72, 89-93, 117

mechanisms for, 90

pretreatment required, 90, 92

testing, 138

Air stripping. See Aeration systems

Aldehydes, 68

Algae, 76, 100-101, 105, 107, 110, 133

testing for removal of, 142

Allocation decisions, delays in, 27

Alumina. See Activated alumina systems

American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 135-136

American Water Works Association (AWWA), 10, 16-17, 127, 150, 155, 188, 190-191, 203

Ammonia use, 68-69

Amphoteric properties, 97

Anion exchange. See Ion exchange systems

ANSI. See American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

Antiscalant chemical use, 77, 84

Appraisals. See Performance appraisals

Arizona (Tucson), 99

Army Corps of Engineers, 127

Arsenic, 38, 87, 98

Association of State Drinking Water Administrators (ASDWA), 19, 189 -190

Atrazine, 32

Automatic monitoring devices, 68

Availability. See Water sources

AWWA. See American Water Works Association (AWWA)

B

Backsiphonage of contaminants, 27, 40

Back-up provisions. See Small water supply systems, emergency back-up provisions

Backwashing, 77, 80, 86, 102, 106

Bacteria, 63, 66, 76, 80, 90, 101, 107, 112

See also Coliform bacteria

Bag filter systems, 5, 112-114

changing filter bags, 113-114

for pretreatment, 76

testing, 145

Barium, 96

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1997. Safe Water From Every Tap: Improving Water Service to Small Communities. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5291.
×

Bench-scale testing, 5, 136

Biological filtration, 66, 85, 109-110

Biological instability of water, 66

Boiling water, 28, 42

Bottled water, 125-127, 129

Bromate, 68

C

Cadmium, 96

Calcium, 95, 97

Calcium carbonate, 71-73, 77, 87, 93

California, Desert Center, 98

California Department of Health Services (DHS), 122-123, 139

Canada, Montreal, 41

Capital requirements

funding improvements, 2-3, 167-168

varying with technology used, 60-62

Carbon dioxide (CO2), 71, 73, 89, 93

Carbonate, 95

Carcinogens, 32

Cartridge filter systems, 5, 112-114

changing filter cartridges, 113-114

for pretreatment, 76, 82

testing, 145

Cash reserves, 165

Cation exchange. See Ion exchange systems

Cellulose acetate membranes, 73

Centers for Disease Control, 35-37, 40

Centralized operation, 114-116

alternatives to, 6, 116-127

remote monitoring and control, 114-116

Chemical contaminants. See Contaminants

Chemical disinfection. See Disinfection systems

Chemical feeders, 72

Chemical poisoning, acute, 38-40

Chloramine treatment, 63, 66, 69, 71, 128

Chlorate, 68

Chlorine dioxide treatment 63, 66, 69

Chlorine treatment, 63, 66, 69, 71, 90, 94-95, 128

Chromate, 95

See also Dichromate

Chromium, trivalent, 96

Coagulation/filtration systems, 5, 100-103.

See also Dissolved air flotation (DAF) systems

shutdown precautions required, 102

testing, 140-144

Coliform bacteria, 30-31, 112

Color, testing for removal of, 142

Colorado, Blue Mountain Subdivision, 93, 97

Committee on Small Water Supply Systems, 2, 13, 201

Communications format, standardizing, 116

Community Involvement Opportunities in Water-Wastewater Services, 180

Community water systems. See Small water supply systems;

Water supply systems

Competitive adsorption, 86

of ions, 5

Computer-based training, 202

Concentrate disposal. See Disposal

Consolidating small water systems, 14-15, 18, 43-44, 166-167

Contaminants.

See also Turbidity chemical, 31-35

lists of, 20-21, 33-34

microbiological, 28-31, 49, 99, 128

number regulated, 15-18

underestimated, 30

Contract services, 177-179

Copper, 38, 71-72

Copper sulfate use, 90

Corrosion control systems, 6, 58, 71-73

testing, 147

Corrosivity of water, 40, 58

Cross-connections, preventing, 40, 117

Cryptosporidium, 29-30, 42, 63, 76, 99-101, 105-107, 111-115, 144-145

CT values (concentration x time), 67, 69, 76, 111, 146-147

Cyanogen chloride, 68

Cysts. See Giardia

D

DAF. See Dissolved air flotation (DAF) systems

Data collection, 137

centralizing, 148-149

D/DBP. See Disinfection/Disinfectant Byproducts (D/DBP) Rule

DE. See Diatomaceous earth (DE) filtration systems

Deep-bed filtration, 100, 102

Department of Interior, 127

Desalination, 73, 81-84

Desorption, 86

Developer cost-cutting, 25, 43

DHS. See California Department of Health Services (DHS)

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1997. Safe Water From Every Tap: Improving Water Service to Small Communities. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5291.
×

Diarrhea, 35, 40-41

Diatomaceous earth (DE) filtration systems, 5, 106-109

cleaning filter leaves, 107-108

testing, 144

Dichromate, 95

Direct filtration, 140-141.

See also Coagulation/filtration systems

Disease. See Waterborne disease

Disinfectant residual, maintaining, 66-67, 89

Disinfection, natural, 89

Disinfection systems, 5-6, 19, 48, 58, 63, 66-71, 128.

See also Electrolytic generation of mixed disinfectants

dispersal requirements, 69-70

testing, 146-147

Disinfection/Disinfectant Byproducts (D/DBP) Rule, 67-68

Disposal, 77-78, 81, 97-98

Dissolved air flotation (DAF) systems, 103-106

excessive turbulence in, 106

Distillation systems, 123

standards for, 135

Distribution system residual. See Disinfectant residual, maintaining

Drinking water safety. See Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)

E

Economies of scale, 2.

See also Consolidating small water systems

ED/EDR. See Electrodialysis (ED) & electrodialysis reversal (EDR) systems

Education for water system operators

See Operator training

Electric Power Research Institute, 180

Electrochemical separation. See Electrodialysis (ED)/electrodialysis reversal (EDR) systems

Electrodialysis (ED)/electrodialysis reversal (EDR) systems, 81-84

energy requirements, 84

pretreatment required, 82

Electrolytic generation of mixed disinfectants, 66

Electrostatic attraction, 95

Emergencies, provision for. See Small water supply systems, emergency back-up provisions

Emergency reserve fund, 165

Emergency Water Supply Plan, 127

Endemic disease, underreported, 40-41

England and Wales, 14-15

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2, 6, 10, 12-14, 22, 30, 35 -37, 40, 48, 66-67, 122, 127, 136, 148-150, 201-204

surveys conducted by, 16, 41

Environmental Technology Verification Program, 135

Epidemiologic investigations, 35-38

Equalization tank use, 70

Equipment testing protocols. See Testing protocols

F

FDA. See Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

Federal funding programs, 168

Federal Reporting Data System, 187

Fees. See Rate structure

Filter cartridges, variability in pore size, 112

Filtration. See Coagulation/filtration systems;

Membrane filtration systems

Financial viability of communities, 24-28, 164-166

borrowing ability, 25

community income levels, 24-25, 154

unemployment rates, 25

Flocculation, 100-101, 104, 106

Florida, 81

Fluoride, 32, 38, 89, 95, 98, 128

Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 127

Formazin turbidity unit (FTU), 111-112

G

GAC (granular activated carbon). See Activated carbon use

Gas-permeable membrane systems, 90, 92

Giardia, 30, 41-42, 63, 69, 76, 87, 99-101, 107, 110-115, 139, 144 -146

Gray water, 86

Ground water.

See also Water sources, surface versus ground sources of contamination, 89

Ground Water Disinfection Rule (GWDR), 88

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1997. Safe Water From Every Tap: Improving Water Service to Small Communities. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5291.
×

H

Haloacetic acids (HAAs), 68

Health protection. See Public health, protecting

Hepatitis A, 35

Heterotrophic plate count level, 89

Hydrated lime, 87

I

Illinois

Village of Aroma Park, 26

Wenona, 81

Internet, exchanging information on, 6

Interstate Quarantine Act of 1893, 16

Ion exchange systems, 5, 95-97, 117, 119, 123

ion breakthrough, 97

regenerating exchange resins, 95, 119

standards for, 135

testing, 140

Iron, 42, 71-72, 93

oxidized, 87

Irradiation. See Ultraviolet (UV) light disinfection

J

Joint operating agreements, 179

L

Laboratory analyses, 86, 146

Lead, 19, 71-72, 96

Lead and Copper Rule, 72, 147

Leadership, need for, 183

Lime softening systems, 5, 87-88

testing, 145-146

Limestone contractors. See Calcium carbonate

Log credits, 99, 139

M

Magnesium, 87, 95, 97

Maintenance costs, funding, 169

Manganese, 42, 87, 93, 95

Maximum containment levels (MCLs), 16-21, 29-32, 121-122, 161

determined, 32

violations of, 31, 33-34

Median household income (MHHI), 166

Membrane filtration systems, 4-5, 73-78, 88, 123

fouling of, 4, 76, 78

gas-permeable, 90, 92

membrane construction, 74-75

membrane replacement, 77

pretreatment required, 76

selective membrane use. See Electrodialysis (ED)/electrodialysis

reversal (EDR) systems

semipermeable membrane use. See Reverse osmosis systems

testing, 138-139

MHHI. See Median household income (MHHI)

Microbiological contaminants. See Contaminants

Microfiltration, 138.

See also Membrane filtration systems

Mixed disinfectants. See Electrolytic generation of mixed disinfectants

Molecular weight cutoff (MWCO), 73, 76-77

Monitoring, remote. See Remote monitoring

Monitoring requirements, 29, 30, 64-68, 72, 77, 80, 84-88, 92, 95-98, 101-102, 105-108, 113-114, 119-123

Multiple barrier approach, 41

Multiple disinfectants. See Electrolytic generation of mixed disinfectants

MWCO. See Molecular weight cutoff (MWCO)

N

Nanofiltration. See Membrane filtration systems

National Contingency Plan, 127

National Drinking Water Clearinghouse (NDWC), 4, 6, 148, 150-151

National Environmental Training Center for Small Communities (NETCSC) , 10, 192, 202-204

National Research Council (NRC), 2, 12-13, 16

National Rural Electrification Cooperative Association (NRECA), 180

National Rural Utilities Cooperative Finance Corporation, 180

National Rural Water Association, 10, 190-191

National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) International, 3-4, 6, 123, 135-136, 150

National Training Coalition (NTC), 10, 192, 202-204

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1997. Safe Water From Every Tap: Improving Water Service to Small Communities. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5291.
×

NDWC. See National Drinking Water Clearinghouse (NDWC)

NETCSC. See National Environmental Training Center for Small Communities (NETCSC)

Nevada, Las Vegas, 30

Nitrate, 32, 38, 40, 89, 95, 115, 128

Nonproliferation, encouraging. See Consolidating small water systems

NRC. See National Research Council (NRC)

NRECA. See National Rural Electrification Cooperative Association (NRECA)

NSF. See National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) International

NTC. See National Training Coalition (NTC)

Nuisance chemicals, 48-49, 58

O

Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, 150

Oocysts. See Cryptosporidium

Operating costs, 64-65

funding, 169

Operating data, relaying. See Remote monitoring

Operating requirements, 68-72, 77, 80, 84-88, 92, 95-98, 101-102, 105-108, 113-114

records of, 162-163

Operator certification requirements, 189-190

Operator skill levels required, 59, 64-65, 128, 147-148, 193-201

Operator training, 9-10, 187-204

model program for, 199-201

Organic contaminants, 5

causing oxidant demand, 94

removal by adsorption, 58, 85-86

removal efficiencies, 77, 80

volatile, 16-17, 89, 128

Orthophosphate use, 71-72

Oxidation/filtration systems, 93-95

Ozone treatment, 63, 66, 68-69, 94, 128

small package systems, 70-71

P

PAC (powdered activated carbon). See Activated carbon use

Package water treatment plants, 3, 6, 58, 103, 132

third party certification of, 3-4, 123, 133-136, 149

Parasites, 17, 30.

See also Cryptosporidium;Giardia

Pathogenic organisms

underestimated, 30

unknown, 38

Pennsylvania, Village of Onnalinda, 28

Performance appraisals, 7-9, 158-166, 185

model for, 160

pH control, 71-72, 87

pH meters, 148

calibrating, 88

Pilot testing, site-specific, 3-4, 6, 133-134, 138, 149

streamlining for package water treatment plants, 12-13

Pink water, 95

Planning. See Small water supply systems, comprehensive planning for

Plate count level, 89

POE. See Point-of-entry (POE) devices

Point-of-entry (POE) devices, 3, 6, 116-117, 119-125, 128, 135

Point-of-use (POU) devices, 3, 6, 116-125, 128-129, 135

Polarity reversal, 82

Poliovirus, 101

Political considerations, 182-184

Polymer membranes, 73

Polyphosphate use, 71-72

Population, changes in, 154-155

Posttreating water, 80

Potassium permanganate treatment, 94-95

POU. See Point-of-use (POU) devices

Powdered activated carbon (PAC). See Activated carbon use

Power utilities involvement, 180

Preengineered process equipment. See Package water treatment plants

Pressure-driven membrane filtration systems, 73, 76-77, 107.

See also Reverse osmosis systems

Pretreating water, 76, 82, 101, 104

Proliferation of small water systems, 27.

See also Consolidating small water systems

Protozoa, 66, 76.

See also Cryptosporidium;

Giardia

Public health, protecting, 7, 160-166

Public Health Service, 16, 23

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1997. Safe Water From Every Tap: Improving Water Service to Small Communities. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5291.
×

Public water supply systems. See Water supply systems

Public-private partnerships, 176

R

Radiation. See Ultraviolet (UV) light disinfection

Radionuclides, 96-97

Radium, 81, 87, 96, 117, 119

Radon gas, 89, 93, 117

Rapid-rate filtration, 100

Rate structure, 7, 165-166

Raw water. See Water sources

Receivership, 176-177

Recommendations, 150-152, 185-186, 204

Recordkeeping, 7, 121

Red water, 71

Regional planning, 14, 156-158, 180-181

Registry of Equipment Suppliers of Treatment Technologies for Small Systems (RESULTS) database, 4, 6, 148, 151

Regulations. See Water supply regulations

Remote monitoring, 103, 114-115

Replacement schedules, 120

Resanding, 111

Residuals. See Disinfectant residual, maintaining

Resin beads. See Ion exchange systems

Restructuring arrangements, 8-9, 154, 169, 175-183

agents involved, 179-181

barriers to, 181-183

RESULTS. See Registry of Equipment Suppliers of Treatment Technologies for Small Systems (RESULTS) database

Revenues, operating, 2, 7, 165

Reverse osmosis systems, 78-81, 88, 117, 119, 123, 128

fouling of, 80

membrane replacement, 80

posttreatment required, 80

shutdown precautions required, 80-81

standards for, 135

testing, 139

Risk assessment, 32

Roughing filter processes, 101, 103

Rural Community Assistance Program, 10

S

Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), 2-4, 7-12, 16-19, 22, 48, 58, 82, 116, 127-128, 132, 152, 164, 187, 201

compliance with, 28-32, 35, 158

contaminants regulated under, 20-21

exceeding requirements of, 132-133

Safe Drinking Water Hotline, 150

Saltwater intrusion, 89

Sampling representative households, 121-122

Sandwich filter, 111

Sanitary surveys, 8

SCADA. See Supervisory control and automatic data acquisition (SCADA)

Scaling, 4, 58, 87, 138.

See also Antiscalant chemical use

Schmutzdecke buildup, 109

SDWA. See Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)

Sedimentation, 100-101

alternative to, 104

Selenium species, 95, 98

Service contracts, rapid-response, 148

Site-specific testing. See Pilot testing, site-specific

Skill levels required. See Operator skill levels required

Slow sand filtration systems, 5, 109-112, 128

testing, 144-145

Small Community Environmental Training: Trends-Issues, 192

Small System Hotline, 150

Small water supply systems.

See also Technologies for small water supply systems

adequacy of, 41-44

comprehensive planning for, 161-164

defining, 13

determining value of, 175-176

emergency back-up provisions, 163-164

federal funding programs for, 168

higher costs of, 26

maintenance of, 42.

See also Operating requirements

methods suited to, 78, 81, 84, 87, 95, 98-99, 108, 112, 114, 124-125

numbers of, 12-15

state funding programs for, 170-174

status of, 2, 10-13, 24-47

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1997. Safe Water From Every Tap: Improving Water Service to Small Communities. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5291.
×

sustaining, 7-9, 153-186

training operators for, 9-10, 187-204.

See also Operator skill levels required

upgrading, 44

Soda ash use, 87, 146

Sodium chloride

generating chlorine from, 66

removal. See Desalination

Sodium hydroxide, 98

Softening membranes, 76

Spectrophotometry, 67

SRF. See State revolving fund (SRF) awards

Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 137

State funding programs, 170-174

State regulatory agencies, 2, 6-7, 27-29, 133-136, 151-152, 166-167.

See also California Department of Health Services (DHS)

reluctance to use data from other states, 134, 149

State revolving fund (SRF) awards, 9, 159, 168, 182-183

Statewide planning, 156-158

Storage requirements, 109-110

Streaming current detectors, 148

Supervisory control and automatic data acquisition (SCADA), 115

Surface water, 99.

See also Water sources, surface versus ground

Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR), 99-101, 109, 111, 128, 134

Sustainability. See Small water supply systems, sustaining

SWTR. See Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR)

System sustainability. See Small water supply systems, sustaining

T

Task Force on Drinking Water Construction Funding and Regionalization, 13

Tax incentives, 9

Technologies for small water supply systems, 3-7, 48-131

alternatives to, 3, 128

changing, 58-59

evaluating, 132-152

list of, by contaminant type, 50-57

operational considerations, 64-65.

See also Operating requirements

Telemetry devices. See Remote monitoring

Temperature effects, 67, 73, 101, 137

Test kits, 67

Testing protocols, 4, 6, 136-137, 151-152

Texas

City of San Antonio, 155

Spicewood, 97

THMs. See Trihalomethanes (THMs)

Total water management, 155

Trihalomethanes (THMs), 19, 68

Turbidimeters, continuous, 102, 148

Turbidity, 49, 72, 82, 88, 99-102, 105, 133.

See also Formazin turbidity unit (FTU)

testing for removal of, 142

U

Ultrafiltration. See Membrane filtration systems

Ultraviolet (UV) light disinfection, 63, 68, 70, 119, 123

life span of lamps, 119

standards for, 135

Uranium, 97

V

Vacuum filters, 107

Video training, 202

Violations of water quality standards, 7, 187

Viruses, 17, 30, 63, 66, 76, 80, 99-101, 112-114, 139

Vomiting, 38

W

Waivers, temporary, 9

Wales. See England and Wales

Washington, Kitsap County, 26-27

Waste disposal. See Disposal

Water pressure, low, 27

Water quality

declining, 41

failures of, 28

sampling for, 143

Water Quality Association (WQA), 123

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1997. Safe Water From Every Tap: Improving Water Service to Small Communities. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5291.
×

Water sources, 162

availability of, 155

surface versus ground, 3, 48-49, 64-65, 68, 87-89, 99

Water supply regulations.

See also Environmental Protection Agency (EPA);

Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA);

State regulatory agencies

increasing numbers of, 15-18

Water supply systems, 14-16

classes of, 14

communities lacking, 26-27

failures of, 28

sustaining. See Small water supply systems, sustaining

Waterborne disease outbreaks, 1, 8, 12, 27-28, 30, 35-41, 103

problems interpreting data about, 40

underreported, 40-41

use of bottled water during, 127

Western States Protocol, 134

Wisconsin, Milwaukee, 29-30

WQA. See Water Quality Association (WQA)

Wyoming, 19, 42

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1997. Safe Water From Every Tap: Improving Water Service to Small Communities. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5291.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1997. Safe Water From Every Tap: Improving Water Service to Small Communities. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5291.
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Small communities violate federal requirements for safe drinking water as much as three times more often than cities. Yet these communities often cannot afford to improve their water service. Safe Water From Every Tap reviews the risks of violating drinking water standards and discusses options for improving water service in small communities. Included are detailed reviews of a wide range of technologies appropriate for treating drinking water in small communities. The book also presents a variety of institutional options for improving the management efficiency and financial stability of water systems.

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