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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
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B6 1,2-Dichloroethane

King Lit Wong, Ph.D.

Johnson Space Center Toxicology Group

Biomedical Operations and Research Branch

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Houston, Texas

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

The compound 1, 2-dichloroethane (EDC) is a colorless liquid with an odor characteristic of chlorinated hydrocarbons (ACGIH, 1991).

Synonym:

Ethylene dichloride

Formula:

CH2ClCH2Cl

CAS number:

107-06-2

Molecular weight:

99.0

Boiling point:

83.5°C

Melting point:

-35.5°C

Specific gravity:

0.94

Vapor pressure:

87 mmHg at 25°C

Saturated vapor concentration:

114,474 ppm at 25°C

Conversion factors at 25°C, 1 atm:

1 ppm = 4.05 mg/m3

1 mg/m3 = 0.25 ppm

OCCURRENCE AND USE

EDC has been used in vinyl chloride manufacture, as a solvent, degreaser, and fumigant (ACGIH, 1991). EDC has been detected at a trace concentration (just enough was collected on Tenax for gas chromatography-mass spectrometry qualitative identification, but not for

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

quantitative analysis) in air samples taken in a shuttle mission (NASA, 1990). Off-gassing was most likely its source in that mission.

TOXICOKINETICS AND METABOLISM

Toxicokinetics

Reitz et al. (1982) did a toxicokinetic study in rats using the maximally tolerated concentration of EDC (i.e., 150 ppm) from a 2-y bioassay of Maltoni et al. (1980). When the rats were exposed at 150 ppm for 6 h, the blood concentration reached a plateau in about 2 h; this observation indicated that EDC was absorbed readily. When the 6-h exposure ended, the compound was rapidly cleared from the blood with a bi-exponential decay, and the half-lives of the two phases were 6 and 35 min. During the 48 h after the 6-h exposure, only 1.8% of the amount of EDC absorbed by the body (the total body burden) was exhaled unchanged. Much of the total body burden was excreted in those 48 h as metabolites: 84.4% in urine, 7.0% as CO2, and 1.7% in feces, so that only 4.4% of the total body burden remained in the rat's body after 48 h.

Metabolism

Anders and Livesey (1980) showed that EDC is metabolized by two competing pathways. A proposed metabolic scheme is shown in Figure 6-1 (IPCS, 1987). In one pathway, EDC is oxidized by the cytochrome P-450 system to 2-chloroacetaldehyde, which could react with macromolecules in the cell. 2-Chloroacetaldehyde could be further oxidized by aldehyde dehydrogenase to 2-chloroacetic acid, which is oxidized to 2-chloroethanol or conjugated with glutathione, and be eliminated eventually. Another pathway involves direct conjugation with glutathione to form S-(2-chloroethyl)-glutathione, which could either form glutathione episulfonium ion or react with glutathione to form ethane and hydrogen chloride. Glutathione episulfonium ion could react with cellular macromolecules, or it could conjugate with glutathione to form S, S'-ethane bisglutathione, which is then eliminated after being transformed into other metabolites.

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

FIGURE 6-1   Proposed metabolic pathways for 1, 2-dichloroethane. Source: Adapted from IPCS, 1987.

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

Because both metabolic pathways generate a metabolite (i.e., 2-chloroacetaldehyde and glutathione episulfonium ion) that could react with macromolecules, it is of interest to compare their genotoxic potency. Storer and Conolly (1985) compared the amount of hepatic DNA damage in EDC-exposed mice pretreated with dimethyl maleate, which depleted glutathione, or piperonyl butoxide, which inhibited the cytochrome P-450 system. They demonstrated that EDC resulted in more hepatic DNA damage during inhibition of the cytochrome P-450 than during depletion of glutathione. Therefore, the metabolites in the glutathione conjugation pathway are more genotoxic than those in the oxidative pathway (Storer and Conolly, 1985). It appears that glutathione episulfonium ion is probably the major genotoxic metabolite of EDC.

The cytochrome P-450 oxidative pathway of EDC metabolism is saturable at lower EDC concentrations than the glutathione conjugation pathway (NRC, 1987). Based on a physiologically based pharmacokinetic model, the cytochrome P-450 oxidative pathway tends to be saturated at an oral EDC dose of about 1 mg/kg in mice (NRC, 1987). In rats, as the EDC dose increased to above 25 mg/kg, there was a transient depletion of glutathione in the liver (D'Souza et al., 1988). Therefore, at oral EDC doses below 1 mg/kg, the model predicts that the amount of glutathione-conjugate metabolite formed in the liver of mice increases linearly with the dose (NRC, 1987). At doses between 1 and 25 mg/kg, the amount of glutathione-conjugate metabolite in the liver does not increase linearly with the dose, but instead it curves upward, probably because of the saturation of the cytochrome P-450 pathway. Between a dose of 25 and 150 mg/kg, however, the amount of glutathione-conjugate metabolite begins to reach a plateau because of glutathione depletion.

TOXICITY SUMMARY

EDC is known to cause death, central-nervous-system (CNS) depression, miscellaneous symptoms, corneal opacity, gastrointestinal (GI) and hepatic toxicity, and impairment of host defense toward microbes. It has also been shown to cause tumors in rodents.

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×
Acute and Short-Term Exposures

The literature on the toxic effects of EDC after a single exposure or after exposures repeated for no more than 7 d is reviewed here.

Lethality

A number of fatal cases of accidental EDC poisoning have been reported in the literature. Most of them involve occupational exposures. These workers were generally found unconscious after an acute exposure to a presumably very high, but unknown, concentration of EDC. Their symptoms and signs could include CNS depression, weakness of the limbs, cyanosis, rales over the chest, tachycardia, jaundice, and anuria. Autopsies showed lung edema and congestion, fatty liver, hepatic necrosis, cavernous formations in liver, hyalinized or swollen glomeruli, swollen renal tubules with the lumen filled with dead cells or hyaline and granular casts, and granular degeneration of renal tubules (Brass, 1949; Hadengue and Martin, 1953; Troisi and Cavallazzi, 1961). In one case, pulmonary edema was the cause of death, and a victim of another case probably died of circulatory collapse (Brass, 1949; Hadengue and Martin, 1953).

Quantitative information is lacking on the lethal concentration of EDC in humans. In contrast, several studies have been done to determine the lethal concentrations of EDC for laboratory animals (Heppel et al., 1946; Spencer et al., 1951; Bonnet et al., 1980). Analyses of these animal data revealed that species differences exist in EDC's acute lethal effect. The species sensitivities ranked in decreasing order are mice, guinea pigs, rabbits, rats, dogs, and cats. Bonnet et al. (1980) showed that the 6-h LC50 of EDC was only 262 ppm in mice and 1646 ppm in rats. Heppel et al. (1946) compared the sensitivities of rats, rabbits, guinea pigs, cats, and dogs to acute EDC exposures. They reported that in two daily exposures to EDC at 1000 ppm for 7 h/d, 58% of guinea pigs and 33% of rabbits died, but none of the rats, cats, and dogs died. When the exposures were extended to 7 h/d, 5 d/w for several weeks, 55 % of the rats died after 1 w of exposure, but none of the dogs and cats died after 3 w. Because three of six dogs became sick

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

after 3-4 w of exposure and only one of six cats was affected after 4 w of exposure, cats appeared to be the most tolerant species among the ones tested. Even though rhesus monkeys were also tested in their study, no valid species comparison can be made with monkeys because only two monkeys and no controls were used in the 1000-ppm group.

In addition to species differences, there are sex differences in EDC's lethal effect in some of the species. In an experiment conducted in which rats and guinea pigs were exposed to EDC at 400 ppm, 7 h/d, 5 d/w, for up to 8 w, it took 10 exposures to kill 15 female rats, compared with 40 exposures to kill 15 male rats. It took only 10 exposures to kill eight male guinea pigs but 24 exposures to kill eight female guinea pigs (Spencer et al., 1951). Therefore, female rats are more sensitive than male rats, but the reverse is true in guinea pigs.

Spencer et al. (1951) studied extensively the acute exposure concentrations of EDC that produced lethality in rats. They showed that the acute lethal effect of EDC increased with the product of exposure concentration and duration in rats (Table 6-1).

TABLE 6-1 Lethality of EDC Concentration and Duration of Exposure

Exposure Concentration, ppm

Duration for 0.01% Mortality, h

Duration for 50% Mortality, h

12,000

0.2

0.5

3000

1.0

3.0

1500

2.0

5.5

1000

3.5

7.0

Cause of Death and Internal Injuries

As mentioned above, pulmonary edema and circulatory collapse have been postulated to be the cause of death in humans acutely poisoned by EDC (Brass, 1949; Hadengue and Martin, 1953). Among laboratory animals, rats are the best studied. The cause of death from acute EDC poisoning in rats depends on the exposure concentration. An exposure at 20,000 ppm killed the rats with extremely severe CNS depression in 0.3-0.4 h (Spencer et al., 1951). In contrast, at 12,000 ppm or lower,

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

Spencer's group found that CNS depression was not the cause of death because no coma or death occurred during the exposure. In rats exposed to EDC at the LC50 of 12,000 ppm for 0.5 h, 3000 ppm for 3 h, or 1000 ppm for 7 h, the most pronounced histopathological effect was in the kidney with necrosis and degeneration of the tubular epithelium, interstitial edema, hemorrhage, and congestion. There were also varying degrees of parenchymatous degeneration and hemorrhagic necrosis in the liver, but no fatty degeneration. Based on the lesions described by Spencer et al. (1951), severe renal injuries appeared to cause the death of rats acutely exposed to EDC at 12,000 ppm or lower.

In addition to determining the acute lethal concentrations of EDC, Spencer et al. (1951) also determined acute exposure concentrations that did not produce any internal injuries. They found that the exposure conditions shown in Table 6-2 were devoid of any adverse macroscopic or microscopic effects.

Miscellaneous Symptoms

In nonfatal cases of acute EDC exposure of workers, the symptoms included dizziness, headache or pressure in the head, nausea, vomiting, epigastric cramps, and weakness (Wirtschafter and Schwartz, 1939; Jordi, 1944). Except for dizziness, the symptoms could last for a few days. The victims could also develop hypoglycemia and leucocytosis. Based on the industrial experience in Russia, Rosenbaum (1947) stated that repeated exposures to EDC at 75-125 ppm could result in acute poisonings with the development of dizziness, headache, weakness, mucosal irritation, nausea, and vomiting.

TABLE 6-2 EDC Exposure Conditions Without Adverse Effects

Exposure Concentration, ppm

Exposure Duration, h

12,000

0.1

3000

0.3

1000

1.5

300

3.0

200

7.0

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×
CNS Depression

As discussed previously, EDC could cause unconsciousness at 20,000 ppm during an exposure lasting 0.3-0.4 h in rats. However, Spencer et al. (1951) found that acute exposures of rats to lower concentrations of EDC, such as 12,000 ppm for 1 h or 3,000 ppm for a few hours, resulted in ''drunkenness'' instead of unconsciousness. Dizziness has been reported in nonfatal cases of acute EDC exposure of workers (Wirtschafter and Schwartz, 1939; Jordi, 1944). The only quantitative data on the depressive effects of EDC in humans were gathered by Borisova (1957, 1960). Borisova measured the light perception threshold in three human subjects during an exposure to EDC at 1 to 12.5 ppm. At 1.5 to 12.5 ppm, the light-perception threshold was reduced in a concentration-dependent fashion, but there was no reduction at 1 ppm. Because Borisova used only three men in this study, the data are not used in setting the SMACs.

Corneal Opacity

A study by Heppel et al. (1944) demonstrated that an exposure of dogs to EDC at 1000 or 1500 ppm for 7 h resulted in bilateral corneal opacity, which cleared up within a week. In repetitive exposures of dogs at 1000 ppm for 7 h/d, 5 d/w, for several weeks, they reported that the corneal opacity increased in intensity during the five exposure days in the first week. The opacity cleared up during 2 d (weekends) of no exposure. As the weekly exposures were repeated, the cornea developed tolerance toward the clouding effect of EDC, and the cornea became almost totally resistant after a few weeks. A similar phenomenon was observed by Heppel et al. (1944) in dogs exposed at 400 ppm for a similar duration. By the fifth week of exposure, 400 ppm was only mildly effective in producing corneal opacity. By the tenth week, the cornea failed to show any cloudiness at all. When Heppel's group exposed 11 species, including dogs, foxes, rabbits, cats, raccoons, guinea pigs, rats, and hogs to EDC at 3000 ppm, only the corneas of the dog and fox were affected. Because corneal opacity has never been documented in accidental and nonaccidental EDC exposures of humans, it is not used as a toxic end point in deriving EDC's SMACs.

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×
Bacterial Respiratory Infection

Female mice exposed to EDC at 10 ppm for 3 h resulted in decreased pulmonary bactericidal activity against inhaled Klebsiella pneumoniae and in increased mortality upon inhalation challenge of Streptococcus zooepidemicus (Sherwood et al., 1987). During the challenge, the mice inhaled about 20,000 to 40,000 Klebsiella or Streptococcus bacteria in 30 min. A 3-h exposure to EDC at 5 ppm, however, increased mortality from streptococcal challenge but did not change pulmonary bactericidal activity. A single exposure or five daily 3-h inhalation exposures to EDC at 2.5 ppm failed to produce any change in the mortality from streptococcal challenge and pulmonary bactericidal activity.

Subchronic and Chronic Exposures
Miscellaneous Symptoms

The symptoms of subchronic EDC intoxication resemble those of nonfatal acute EDC poisoning, consisting mainly of CNS and GI symptoms. McNally and Fostvedt (1941) reported intoxication in two workers exposed to EDC on the job. These workers extracted cholesterol from spinal cords by grinding 2500 pounds of spinal cords in 750 to 900 gallons of EDC. They inhaled EDC vapors during centrifugation of homogenized spinal cords to separate the cholesterol and also when they emptied barrels containing the cholesterol. Both of them presented drowsiness, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, and epigastric discomfort. Nystagmus and fine tremor of the tongue developed in one of the workers, and nervousness was detected in the other worker.

Symptom data from studies in which EDC exposure concentrations were measured are summarized as follows. Cetnarowicz (1959) studied Polish workers involved in purifying mineral oil with a solvent containing 80% EDC and 20% benzene. In a study of 10 workers exposed for 2-8 mo to a mixture of EDC at 62-200 ppm and benzene at 3-8 ppm, all workers complained of mucosal irritation, which disappeared as they adapted to it. Six of them developed dizziness, sleepiness, a sweetish aftertaste, dry mouth, nausea, vomiting, and constipation. Three of 10 workers complained of epigastric pain. Among six workers exposed

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

for 2-8 mo to EDC at 10-37 ppm and benzene at 3-8 ppm, only one complained of the CNS and GI symptoms. Although benzene is known to cause headache, drowsiness, nausea, and loss of appetite (Finkel et al., 1983), the difference in the severity of the symptoms between the two groups can be attributed to the difference in EDC exposure concentrations, because the benzene concentrations were the same in both groups. The data of Cetnarowicz (1959) can be interpreted to mean that the lowering of the EDC exposure concentration from 62-200 ppm to 10-37 ppm decreases the severity of the CNS and GI symptoms of EDC.

Byers (1945) reported that U.S. workers exposed to EDC at concentrations not much higher than 100 ppm for 7.5 h/d developed nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, lassitude, and malaise in a few hours after they left work. These delayed effects of EDC were reduced somewhat, but not totally eliminated, when the EDC concentration was decreased to 70 ppm.

EDC poisoning was reported in two workers exposed on the job to a measured EDC concentration of 120 ppm for 10 min three to four times a day and also to an estimated concentration of greater than 120 ppm daily for 10-15 min (Guerdjikoff, 1955). After several weeks (3 w for one of the workers), they developed fatigue, irritability, nervousness, anorexia, and epigastric pains. As the exposure continued for 7 or 9 mo, the workers gradually experienced tingling sensations of the eyes, headaches, insomnia, dizziness, slight hand trembling, difficulty in walking, and deviation to the right in a blind walk.

Rosenbaum (1939) presented the industrial experiences of EDC in Russia in the 1930s and 1940s. Without specifying the exact exposure concentrations, Rosenbaum reported that occupational exposures of 90 workers to EDC at below 25 ppm could produce bradycardia, fatigue, insomnia, and headache, but no effects on the blood.

Kozik (1957) studied workers in the aircraft industry in Russia. These workers applied glue containing EDC as a solvent to large rubber sheets. On the basis of the data presented by Kozik, the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) estimated that, in the first half of the shift, the time-weighted average (TWA) exposure concentrations of EDC were 28 ppm during glue application and 16 ppm during the period the glue dried (NIOSH, 1976). In the second half of the shift, the TWA exposure concentration of EDC was 11 ppm. Therefore, the EDC TWA exposure concentration for the entire shift

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

was 15 ppm (NIOSH, 1976). Comparing the morbidity data between the gluers and the machinists, who were not exposed to EDC, Kozik (1957) reported that the EDC exposure increased both the number of cases of acute GI disorders per 100 workers and the number of workdays lost to acute GI disorders per 100 workers. Kozik also measured the hand-eye coordination speed of the gluers and machinists at the start and end of the workday for 14 d in 17 gluers and 10 machinists (as controls). The speed did not differ among the groups. However, more errors were made in the test by the EDC-exposed gluers test than by the nonexposed machinists (error rates of 30% for the gluers and 10% for the machinists).

Brzozowski et al. (1954) studied 118 agricultural workers who used EDC as a fumigant in Poland. These workers were exposed to EDC at a TWA concentration of about 15 ppm and at a maximum concentration of 60 ppm, but they were also subjected to cutaneous exposure due to EDC spilled on their skin and clothes and due to the use of EDC to wash their skin. In 90 of 118 workers, Brzozowski et al. (1954) also detected redness of the conjunctiva and pharynx, burning sensation of the eye, bronchial symptoms, weakness, metallic taste in the mouth, headache, nausea, liver pain, tachycardia, and cough.

Among the studies reported by Cetnarowicz (1959), Byers (1945), Rosenbaum (1939) , Kozik (1957), and Brzozowski et al. (1954), the data of Brzozowski et al. are not used to derive an acceptable concentration (AC) for CNS and GI symptoms because of the confounding effect of cutaneous exposures. The data of the other four studies used to derive a LOAEL for the symptoms are listed in Table 6-3.

TABLE 6-3 Symptoms of Occupational EDC Poisoning

EDC Concentration, ppm

Symptoms Produced in Workers

Reference

Slightly > 100

CNS and GI symptoms

Byers, 1945

70

Less severe than > 100 ppm

Byers, 1945

< 25

CNS symptoms

Rosenbaum, 1939

15

CNS and GI symptoms and signs

Kozik, 1957

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

According to Byers (1945), the reduction of occupational exposure to EDC from not much higher than 100 ppm to 70 ppm reduced the symptoms of EDC intoxication, indicating that the lowest-observed adverse-effect level (LOAEL) ought to be 70 ppm or lower. The report from Rosenbaum (1939) that occupational exposures to less than 25 ppm still produced some CNS symptoms suggests that the LOAEL should be lower than 25 ppm. Therefore, the TWA exposure concentration of 15 ppm found to cause GI disorders and CNS impairment by Kozik (1957) is selected as the LOAEL for GI and CNS symptoms. The LOAEL of 15 ppm is supported by Cetnarowicz's data that Polish workers exposed to EDC at 10-37 ppm and benzene at 3-8 ppm were less likely to complain of CNS and GI symptoms than those exposed to EDC at 62-200 ppm and benzene at 3-8 ppm.

Gastroenterological and Hepatic Toxicity

As discussed above, Cetnarowicz (1959) reported symptoms in 10 Polish workers exposed to EDC at 62-200 ppm with benzene at 3-8 ppm and in six workers exposed to EDC at 10-37 ppm with benzene at 3-8 ppm. X-ray examinations of these 16 workers showed that six had chronic catarrh of the stomach with atrophy of the mucous membrane and three also had periodic spasm of the pylorus. Those results are evidence of an organic basis for the EDC-induced GI symptoms.

Cetnarowicz (1959) also reported that four of the 10 workers exposed to EDC at 62-200 ppm and benzene at 3-8 ppm for 2-8 mo had minimally enlarged livers, which were tender when palpated. Liver function tests were performed in the workers. Most of the 16 workers (the 62-200-ppm group and the 10-37-ppm group) showed increased urobilinogen levels in the urine. Six of them had reduced serum levels of albumin, but eight of them had increased globulin levels in the serum. The workers had normal blood glucose levels, but the levels in eight of them were slow in returning to normal during the glucose tolerance test. From these tests on liver function, Cetnarowicz (1959) concluded that liver functions were impaired in 50% of the 16 EDC-exposed workers (75 % of those in the 62-200 ppm group).

When two monkeys, without any control group, were exposed to EDC at 400 ppm, 7 h/d, 5 d/w, for 8 or 12 exposures, both monkeys developed enlarged fatty liver and degeneration of renal tubules

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

(Spencer et al., 1951). Heppel et al. (1946) also exposed two monkeys to EDC at 200 ppm, 7 h/d, 5 d/w, for 25 w. These two monkeys appeared to tolerate the exposure well and had satisfactory appetites and weight gains. However, microscopic examination after necropsy revealed fine fat droplets in both the liver and myocardium. The data of Spencer's and Heppel's studies suggested that EDC is a hepatotoxicant in primates, consistent with the results of Cetnarowicz (1959) in human workers. Unfortunately, none of these studies on monkeys or humans provided information on the no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL), which must be determined from experiments involving rodents.

According to Spencer et al. (1951) and Heppel et al. (1946), who exposed rats and guinea pigs to EDC at 0, 100, 200, or 400 ppm, 7 h/d, 5 d/w, for 2-8 w, subchronic EDC exposures at 400 ppm definitely produced fatty liver in rats and guinea pigs. The hepatotoxicity of similar exposures at 200 ppm was only equivocal in these rodent species. However, the 5-d/w exposures at 100 ppm failed to cause any liver or kidney injuries in guinea pigs after 3, 15, or 32 w (Spencer et al., 1951; Heppel et al., 1946). In rats, the 5-d/w exposures at 100 ppm also did not produce any liver or kidney damage after 15 or 30 w. Finally, Cheever et al. (1990) showed that even a chronic exposure of rats to EDC at 50 ppm, 7 h/d, 5 d/w, for 2 y resulted in no histopathological effects. On the basis of the data on the hepatotoxicity of EDC in exposed rodents, the NOAEL for subchronic exposure is 100 ppm and that for chronic exposure is 50 ppm.

Carcinogenicity

The data gathered on rodents exposed to EDC show that tumor development in chronic studies might depend on the route of exposure. In an inhalation study performed by Maltoni et al. (1980), EDC failed to produce tumors after repetitive exposures of Sprague-Dawley rats and Swiss mice at 150 ppm, 7 h/d, 5 d/w, for 78 w. The failure of the inhalation study to yield tumors was not because the exposure concentration was too low. In fact, the repetitive exposures started at 250 ppm, and the concentration had to be reduced to 150 ppm after several exposures because of the severe toxic effects. So there is no doubt that the rats and mice were exposed to EDC at the maximally tolerated concentration.

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

In contrast, Ward (1980) presented the results of a National Cancer Institute (NCI, 1978) study showing that EDC produced tumors in multiple organs of Osborne-Mendel rats and in B6C3F1 mice administered EDC by gavage in corn oil daily, 5 d/w, for 78 w. The high-dose group of rats received EDC at 100 mg/kg per exposure day for 7 w, 150 mg/kg per exposure day for 10 w, and 100 mg/kg per exposure day for 18 w, followed by cycles of one exposure-free week alternating with 4 w of exposure at 100 mg. The high-dose male mice were given EDC at 150 mg/kg per exposure day for 8 w and 200 mg/kg per exposure day for 70 w, followed by 13 w of no exposure. The high-dose female mice received 250 mg/kg per exposure day for 8 w, 400 mg/kg per exposure day for 3 w, and 300 mg/kg per exposure day for 67 w, followed by 12 w of no exposure. In male rats, EDC produced significant increases in squamous cell carcinoma of the forestomach and hemangiosarcomas of the circulatory system; in female rats EDC exposure significantly increased the incidence of mammary adenocarcinoma. Statistically significant increases of alveolar-bronchiolar adenocarcinoma were produced in both male and female mice. Male mice also developed an increase in hepatocellular carcinomas, and female mice developed endometrial stromal polyps and sarcomas.

The reason for the difference in the carcinogenicity of EDC in the inhalation study of Maltoni et al. (1980) and the gavage study of Ward (1980) is unknown. The difference could be due to the different strains of rats and mice used in the two studies. Another possibility is the different routes of exposures used. No studies have compared the carcinogenicity of EDC in different strains of rats or mice exposed by the same route. The National Toxicology Program did compare the organ toxicity of EDC given in drinking water at 0 to 8000 ppm for 13 w in Sprague-Dawley rats and Osborne-Mendel rats (Brondeau et al., 1983). No EDC-related clinical signs, mortality, or histopathological effects were found in either strain. However, the body-weight gain of Osborne-Mendel rats appeared to be more sensitive to EDC than that of Sprague-Dawley rats. It took a concentration of EDC at 1000 ppm or more or 2000 ppm to retard the growth of female and male Osborne-Mendel rats, respectively, but it took 4000 ppm or more to retard the body-weight gain in Sprague-Dawley rats of both sexes (Morgan, 1991). Because the National Toxicology Program study (Brondeau et al., 1983) was only 13 w long, it did not answer the question of whether the carcinogenicity of EDC in rodents is dependent on strain.

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

Evidence that the difference in the route of exposure might explain the difference in EDC's carcinogenicity in the inhalation and gavage studies was presented by Reitz et al. (1982). In a pharmacokinetic study, they demonstrated that the peak concentration of EDC in the blood of Osborne-Mendel rats after EDC was given by gavage at 150 mg/kg was about 5 times higher than that observed when EDC was given by inhalation at 150 ppm for 6 h. Moreover, the amounts of DNA binding in the liver, spleen, kidney, and stomach after gavage were about double or triple those after a 6-h inhalation exposure. Finally, the pharmacokinetic model predicted that elimination of EDC is more likely to become saturated when EDC is administered by gavage than by inhalation. Therefore, EDC administered by gavage at the high dose used in the study by Ward (1980) would result in higher concentrations of EDC in the body for a longer duration than when EDC was administered by inhalation exposure at the high dose used by Maltoni et al. (1980).

On the basis of the findings of the NCI (1978), the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC, 1979) stated that there is sufficient evidence that EDC is carcinogenic in mice and rats. In the absence of adequate data in humans, it is reasonable to regard EDC exposure as a carcinogenic risk to humans. Similarly, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 1990) classified EDC as a probable human carcinogen on the basis of the findings of the NCI study in rats and mice (Ward, 1980), despite the lack of human carcinogenicity data.

Genotoxicity

EDC is mutagenic in Salmonella typhimurium, it induces sex-linked recessive lethality in Drosophila melanogaster, and it produces DNA damage in mice (Rapoport, 1960; Brem et al., 1974; Storer et al., 1984). Therefore, the compound appears to be genotoxic.

Developmental Toxicity

Rao et al. (1980) exposed pregnant rats to EDC at 100 ppm, 7 h/d on days 6 through 15 of gestation and pregnant rabbits at 100 or 300 ppm, 7 h/d on days 6 through 18 of gestation. The exposures failed to

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

cause any maternal toxicity. They also did not increase the incidence of major malformations, showing that the compound is not teratogenic. There were no adverse effects on mean litter size, fetal body weight, fetal crown-rump length, and incidence of resorptions, indicating that EDC is not toxic to the embryo and fetus. A similar exposure of pregnant rats to EDC at 300 ppm killed two-thirds of the rats, so the teratogenicity of that exposure concentration cannot be evaluated.

Interaction with Other Chemicals

The administration of 0.05% disulfiram in the diet of Sprague-Dawley rats exposed to EDC at 50 ppm, 7 h/d, 5 d/w, for 2 y increased the incidence of intrahepatic bile-duct cholangiomas in male and female rats, mammary adenocarcinomas in female rats, and subcutaneous fibromas and interstitial cell tumors in testes (Cheever et al. 1990). In contrast, inhalation of EDC alone at 50 ppm was not carcinogenic. These results indicate that disulfiram in the diet increases the carcinogenicity of inhalation exposures of EDC.

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

TABLE 6-4 Toxicity Summarya

Concentration, ppm

Exposure Duration

Species

Effects

Reference

1

NS

Human

No change in threshold of light perception in three subjects

Borisova, 1957, 1960

1.5

NS

Human

Threshold of light perception reduced in three subjects

Borisova, 1957, 1960

3

NS

Human

1/20 subjects could smell it

Borisova, 1957, 1960

4.5

NS

Human

6/20 subjects could smell it

Borisova, 1957, 1960

6

NS

Human

13/20 subjects could smell it

Borisova, 1957, 1960

10 to 37 and 3 to 8

2 to 8 mo of onthe-job exposure

Human (workers)

1/6 workers complained of dizziness, sleepiness, dry mouth, nausea, vomiting, constipation, and epigastric pain

Cetnarowicz, 1959

12.5

NS

Human

Threshold of light perception decreased in three subjects

Borisova, 1957, 1960

15

On-the-job exposures of unspecified duration

Human (workers)

Acute gastrointestinal disorders; increased number of errors made in a hand-eye coordination test

Kozik, 1957

15 with cutaneous exposure

On-the-job exposures of unspecified duration

Human (workers)

Redness of the conjunctiva and pharynx, burning sensation of the eye, bronchial symptoms, weakness, metallic taste in the mouth, headache, nausea, liver pain, tachycardia, and cough

Brzozowski et al., 1954

<25

On-the-job exposures of unspecified duration

Human (workers)

Bradycardia, fatigue, insomnia, and headache; no effects on the blood

Rosenbaum, 1939

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

Concentration, ppm

Exposure Duration

Species

Effects

Reference

62-200 and benzene at 3 to 8

2 to 8 mo of onthe-job exposure

Human (workers)

Eye irritation in all 10 workers; 6/10 had constipation, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, and sleepiness; 3/10 complained of epigastric pain

Cetnarowicz, 1959

70 or lower and >100

7.5 h/d, 40 h/w for an unspecified duration

Human (workers)

Nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, lassitude, and malaise occurred in a few hours after exposure; the effects were less at 70 ppm than > 100 ppm

Byers, 1945

75-125

Repeated acute exposures of unspecified duration

Human (workers)

Dizziness, headache, weakness, mucosal irritation, nausea, and vomiting

Rosenbaum, 1947

5, 10, 50 or 150

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 78 w

Rat, mouse

No increases in tumor incidence

Maltoni et al., 1980

25, 75, or 150

6 h/d, 5 or 7 d/w

Rat

No reproductive toxicity

Rao et al., 1980

50

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 2 y

Rat

No change in body weight, no histopathological changes

Cheever et al., 1990

100

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 3 w

Guinea pig

No effects on mortality, growth, organ weight, blood urea nitrogen, blood nonprotein nitrogen, serum phosphatase, plasma prothrombin clotting time, and fatty contents of liver, and no effects found on gross and microscopic morphological examination of tissues

Spencer et al., 1951

100

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 3 w and 4 d

Mouse

No death or adverse effect on body-weight gain

Heppel et al., 1946

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

Concentration, ppm

Exposure Duration

Species

Effects

Reference

100

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 13 w and 4 d

Guinea pig

No histological effects

Heppel et al., 1946

100

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 14 w and 4 d

Rat

No deaths; no effects on body-weight gain or histological effects; only 1/16 females failed to become pregnant; the other 15 females bred successfully and gave birth to healthy rats even after exposures during pregnancy

Heppel et al., 1946

100

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 29 w and 3 d

Monkey (n = 2)

No adverse effects on behavior, general appearance, periodic hematological examination, growth and organ weights; gross and microscopic tissue morphological examination revealed no effects

Spencer et al., 1951

100 or 200

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 30 w and 1 d

Rat

No effects on mortality, growth, organ weight, blood urea nitrogen, blood nonprotein nitrogen, serum phosphatase, plasma prothrombin clotting time, and fatty contents of liver; gross and microscopic morphological examination of tissues revealed no effects

Spencer et al., 1951

100

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 32 w and 2 d

Guinea pig

No effect on mortality, growth, organ weight, blood urea nitrogen, blood nonprotein nitrogen, serum phosphatase, plasma prothrombin clotting time, and fatty contents of liver; and gross and microscopic morphological examination of tissues revealed no effects

Spencer et al., 1951

100

7 h/d, d 6 to 15 or 18 of gestation

Rat, rabbit

No developmental toxicity

Rao et al., 1980

150

4 h

Mouse

No liver necrosis or hepatic DNA damage

Storer et al., 1984

200

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 1 w and 2 d

Mouse

18/20 mice died by the end of seven exposures

Heppel et al., 1946

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

Concentration, ppm

Exposure Duration

Species

Effects

Reference

200

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 17 w and 1 d

Rat

Body-weight loss, crusty materials about the eyes, listlessness, and a generally unkempt appearance; 7/12 Wistar rats died within the full exposure period; 8/12 Osborne-Mendel rats died within 28 exposures; in five Wistar rats narcopsied after 86 exposures, pathological effects were found only in one, consisting of fatty degeneration of renal convoluted tubules

Heppel et al., 1946

200

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 24 w and 4 d

Guinea pig

5/14 died within the exposure period; necropsy of the survivors found nothing in five and pulmonary congestion in the other four (necrosis and hemorrhage were detected in the liver of one and in the adrenal cortex of another)

Heppel et al., 1946

200

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 25 w

Monkey (n = 2, no control)

Tolerated the exposure well with satisfactory appetite and weight gain; both had fine fat droplets in myocardium and liver (one had focal calcification of adrenal medulla)

Heppel et al., 1946

200

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 25 w

Rabbit

No exposure-related deaths (n = 5); no adverse findings upon gross and microscopic examinations; no effect on growth

Heppel et al., 1946

200

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 36 w

Guinea pig

Slight retardation of growth; slight degeneration of liver parenchyma with several fat vacuoles distributed diffusely and a slight rise in the lipid contents; no microscopic changes in the structure of other tissues; no changes in blood urea nitrogen, blood nonprotein nitrogen, serum phosphatase, plasma prothrombin clotting time, and organ weights

Spencer et al., 1951

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

Concentration, ppm

Exposure Duration

Species

Effects

Reference

262

6 h

Mouse

Half the animals died in 14 d

Bonnet et al., 1980

400

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 8 or 12 exposures

Monkey (n = 2)

One became moribund after eight exposures; both developed enlarged fatty liver, degeneration of renal tubules with cast formation in the lumens, and increased plasma prothrombin clotting time

Spencer et al., 1951

400

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 10 or 40 exposures

Rat

0/15 females survived more than 10 exposures; 0/15 males survived more than 40 exposures; 60% mortality in females exposed twice and males exposed three times; rapid loss in body weight, slight increases in liver and kidney weights, slight increase in lipid contents of liver in females, slight clouding and swelling of liver with a few large fat vacuoles mainly in centrilobular location, and no histological changes in kidney or other tissues; no effects on blood urea nitrogen, blood nonprotein nitrogen, serum phosphatase, and plasma prothrombin clotting time

Spencer et al., 1951

400

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 10 or 24 exposures

Guinea pig

0/8 males survived more than 10 exposures; 0/8 females survived more than 24 exposures; rapid loss in body weight, increases in liver and kidney weights, slight-tomoderate clouding and swelling of renal tubular epithelium, slight-to-moderate fatty degeneration in centrilobular areas, and elevated blood urea nitrogen and nonprotein nitrogen; no effects on serum phosphatase and plasma prothrombin clotting time

Spencer et al., 1951

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

Concentration, ppm

Exposure Duration

Species

Effects

Reference

400

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 15 w and 4 d

Rat

9/16 died (seven died after 2-4 exposures); fur roughness, general weakness, and weight loss appeared a few days before death but appeared normal before that; only one of the survivors exhibited slight-to-moderate fatty changes in the liver, kidney, and heart, as well as diffuse myocarditis; remaining survivors had no histopathological changes

Heppel et al., 1946

400

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 16 w

Guinea pig

14/20 died (nine died after 8-14 exposures); fur roughness, general weakness, and weight loss appeared a few days before death but appeared normal before that; slight-to-moderate fatty changes of liver and kidney commonly found in dead animals; slight fatty changes found in the heart in about half of them

Heppel et al., 1946

400

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 19 w and 2 d

Rabbit

5/5 died (four died in the last 2 w of exposure)

Heppel et al., 1946

400

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 35 w

Dog

Appeared not to be affected and had satisfactory appetite and body-weight gain; no abnormalities upon physical examinations of nervous system and eyes; normal hematological results, prothrombin time, plasma total protein, globulin, albumin, nonprotein nitrogen, icterus index, bromsulfalein clearance, and arterial pressure; slight fatty change in the liver of five dogs and the kidney of one

Heppel et al., 1946

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

Concentration, ppm

Exposure Duration

Species

Effects

Reference

500

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 17 w

Rat, guinea pig, rabbit, monkey

Liver and kidney injuries, lung congestion, and high mortality

Hofmann et al., 1971

500

4 h

Mouse

Liver necrosis, but no hepatic DNA damage

Storer et al., 1984

846

4 h

Rat

Liver damage is evidenced by increases in sorbitol dehydrogenase, glutamate dehydrogenase, GOT, and GPT in the serum

Brondeau et al., 1983

1000

3 h

Rat

LC0.01

Spencer et al., 1951

1000

4 h

Mouse

Liver necrosis and liver DNA damage

Storer et al., 1984

1000

7h

Mouse

22/22 died

Heppel et al., 1946

1000

7h

Rat

LC50

Spencer et al., 1951

1000

7 h/d, 1 to 4 d

Guinea pig

36/41 died after 1-4 exposures; lacrimation and inactivity detected during exposure; autopsies showed congestion of the lung and other viscera

Heppel et al., 1946

1000

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 3 w

Rat

20/26 died (14 died after 3-5 exposures, three died after 10 exposures, and three died after 15 exposures); fur roughness, general deterioration, weakness, and crusting about the nose seen during exposure; chronic splenitis; and degenerative and proliferative changes in renal tubular epithelium

Heppel et al., 1946

1000

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 6 w and 1 d

Dog

2/6 died (one after 21 exposures and one after 31 exposures; cloudy corneas and coma in some dogs

Heppel et al., 1946

1000

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 11 w

Cat

2/6 died (one after 34 exposures and one after 43 exposures); all six showed fatty changes and congestion of the liver

Heppel et al., 1946

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

Concentration, ppm

Exposure Duration

Species

Effects

Reference

1000

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 12 w and 4 d

Rabbit

5/6 died (two died after two exposures, two after 15-20 exposures, and one after 43 exposures)

Heppel et al., 1946

1000

7 h/d, 5 d/w, 6 w and 2 d

Monkey (n = 2, no control)

One died after two exposures, showing hemorrhage, necrosis, fatty degeneration of liver; and very slight fatty changes in renal tubular epithelium; the other died after the full exposure showing fatty degeneration of liver, slight fatty changes in kidneys, and focal myocarditis

Heppel et al., 1946

1000

12 h

Rat

LC99.99

Spencer et al., 1951

1500

2 h

Rat

LC0.01

Spencer et al., 1951

1500

5 h

Rat

LC50

Spencer et al., 1951

1646

6 h

Rat

Half of the animals died in 14 d

Bonnet et al., 1980

3000

1 h

Rat

LC0.01

Spencer et al., 1951

3000

2.2 h

Rat

LC50

Spencer et al., 1951

3000

7 h

Rat

LC99.99

Spencer et al., 1951

12,000

0.2 h

Rat

LC0.01

Spencer et al., 1951

12,000

0.5 h

Rat

LC50

Spencer et al., 1951

12,000

1 h

Rat

22/22 died after the exposure; ''drunkenness'' but not unconsciousness during exposure

Spencer et al., 1951

22,000

0.2 h

Rat

0/20 died

Spencer et al., 1951

22,000

0.4 h

Rat

20/20 died of CNS depression

Spencer et al., 1951

a Only inhalation study results were included.

NS, not specified.

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

TABLE 6-5 Exposure Limits Set or Recommended by Other Organizations

Agency or Organization

Exposure Limit, ppm

Reference

ACGIH's TLV

10 (TWA)

ACGIH, 1991

OSHA's PEL

50 (TWA)

U.S. Dept. of Labor, 1995

OSHA's STEL

100

U.S. Dept. of Labor, 1995

NIOSH's REL

1 (TWA), 2 (ceiling)

NIOSH, 1978

NIOSH's IDLH

1000

NIOSH, 1978

TLV, Threshold Limit Value; TWA, time-weighted average; PEL, permissible exposure limit; STEL, short-term exposure limit; REL, recommended exposure limit; IDLH, immediately dangerous to life and health.

TABLE 6-6 Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations

Exposure Duration

Concentration, ppm

Concentration, mg/m3

Target Toxicity

1 h

0.4

2

GI symptoms

24 h

0.4

2

GI symptoms

7 da

0.4

2

GI symptoms

30 d

0.4

2

GI symptoms

180 d

0.2

1

Carcinogenesis

a The former 7-d SMAC is 10 ppm.

RATIONALE FOR ACCEPTABLE CONCENTRATIONS

The SMACs for EDC are derived by consulting guidelines developed by the National Research Council (NRC, 1992). The derivation involves consideration of the important toxic end points: CNS effects, GI symptoms, liver toxicity, impaired host resistance, and carcinogenesis. The acute lethality end point is not used, because toxic end points, such as CNS and GI symptoms and internal injuries, should be more sensi-

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

tive than the lethality end point. SMACs derived to prevent these toxic end points will also prevent lethality. For each toxic end point, an acceptable concentration (AC) is estimated for a given exposure duration. In the end, the lowest AC for each exposure duration is chosen to be the SMAC for that duration.

CNS Effects

Based on the report by Kozik (1957), 15 ppm is the lowest-observed-adverse-effect level (LOAEL) for CNS effects (e.g., increased errors in a hand-eye coordination test) in workers exposed to EDC. The severity of CNS effects is assumed to be related to the concentration of EDC in the blood. Because Reitz et al. (1980) showed that the blood concentration of EDC in rats reached equilibrium in 2 h during an inhalation exposure at 150 ppm, it is highly likely that the concentration of EDC in the blood also reached equilibrium within several hours of occupational exposure of workers in the studies performed by Kozik (1957). Therefore, the occupational LOAEL of 15 ppm should be a LOAEL for any EDC exposure lasting from 24 h to 180 d. Because the occupational LOAEL is good for 24 h, it should be valid for a 1-h exposure.

An extrapolation factor of 10 is used to estimate the NOAEL from the occupational LOAEL. The LOAEL of 15 ppm is based on a large population of workers (Kozik, 1957); therefore, no adjustment for "small n" is needed.

1-h, 24-h, 7-d, 30-d, and 180-d ACs for CNS depression

= occupational LOAEL × 1/NOAEL factor

= 15 ppm × 1/10

= 1.5 ppm.

Gastrointestinal Symptoms

The LOAEL for GI symptoms is also 15 ppm based on the study of Kozik (1957) in Russian workers. Unlike CNS symptoms, it is not certain whether GI symptoms are totally dependent on blood concentration. As a result, time adjustment is needed to extrapolate from the occupa-

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

tional LOAEL to a continuous exposure of 7, 30, or 180 d. Kozik did not report how many months or years the Russian workers in his study were exposed to EDC; therefore, the time adjustment is done on a per workweek basis. Due to the uncertainty on the number of hours worked per week in the 1940s and 1950s by Russian workers, the number of work hours is prudently assumed to be 40 h/w.

7-d, 30-d, and 180-d AC for GI symptoms

= occupational LOAEL × 1/LOAEL factor × time adjustment

= 15 ppm × 1/10 × (40 h/w)/(24 h/d × 7 d/w)

= 15 ppm × 1/10 × 0.24

= 0.36 ppm.

Without a better approach, the 1-h and 24-h ACs for GI symptoms are conservatively estimated to be the same as the 7-d AC of 0.36 ppm.

Liver Toxicity

According to the study of Spencer et al. (1951), a 1-h exposure of rats to EDC at 1200 ppm would not produce any liver injuries. So the 1-h AC is derived using 1200 ppm as the NOAEL.

1-h AC for liver toxicity

= 1-h NOAEL × 1/species factor

= 1200 ppm × 1/10

= 120 ppm.

The 7-d, 30-d, and 180-d ACs for liver toxicity also are derived using the data of Spencer et al. (1951). The NOAEL for liver toxicity was determined to be 100 ppm in rats and guinea pigs exposed 7 h/d, 5 d/w, for 15 or 30 w.

180-d AC for liver toxicity

= 30-w NOAEL × 1/species factor × time adjustment

= 100 ppm × 1/10 × (7 h/d × 5 d/w × 30 w)/(24 h/d × 180 d)

= 100 ppm × 1/10 × 0.24

= 2.4 ppm.

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

30-d AC for liver toxicity

= 15-w NOAEL × 1/species factor × time adjustment

= 100 ppm × 1/10 × (7 h/d × 5 d/w × 15 w)/(24 h/d × 30 d)

= 100 ppm × 1/10 × 0.73

= 7.3 ppm.

For the 24-h and 7-d ACs, the conservative approach of not adjusting for the exposure time is taken.

24-h and 7-d ACs for liver toxicity

= 15-w NOAEL × 1/species factor

= 100 ppm × 1/10

= 10 ppm.

Impaired Host Defense

A 3-h exposure to EDC as low as 5 ppm was reported to increase the mortality of mice challenged with Streptococcus via inhalation (Sherwood et al., 1987). Repetitive exposures of mice to 2.5 ppm, 3 h/d, for 5 d failed to affect the host defense against bacterial challenges. Based on the SMAC subcommittee report (NRC, 1992), no interspecies extrapolation factor is needed to derive ACs for the prevention of impaired host defense against pulmonary bacterial infections. However, an uncertainty factor of 3 is used because microgravity is known to impair cell-mediated immunity in astronauts (Taylor, 1993).

1-h, 24-h, 7-d, 30-d, and 180-d ACs for host defense impairment

= 5-h NOAEL × 1/microgravity factor

= 2.5 ppm × 1/3

= 0.8 ppm.

Carcinogenesis

Although EDC has been shown to produce tumors only in a gavage study (Ward, 1980) and not in an inhalation study (Maltoni et al., 1980), the carcinogenicity findings were considered by NIOSH (1978) in recommending an exposure limit of 1 ppm and the Occupational

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) (U.S. Department of Labor, 1989) in promulgating a permissible exposure limit (PEL) of 1 ppm. EPA (1990) also derived an inhalation tumor risk from the data of the gavage study.

It is important that the SMACs prevent unacceptable risks of tumor development. Even though there is uncertainty about the validity of data extrapolation from gavage and inhalation exposures, the tumor data from the gavage study are used to derive ACs. The 2-5 times difference between gavage and inhalation exposure in peak blood concentrations of EDC and DNA binding in several potential target organs (Reitz et al., 1982) is small compared with the 2 orders of magnitude difference between the statistical sensitivity of an animal bioassay and the tumor risk accepted by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). In other words, a negative finding in an animal bioassay in which 50 rodents per group inhaled EDC does not guarantee that inhaled EDC would not produce a significant tumor response if 10,000 rodents were used. Because EDC given by gavage was carcinogenic in about 50 rodents and because the effective dose of EDC given by inhalation was only 2-5 times lower than that given by gavage (Ward, 1980; Reitz et al., 1982), there is a possibility that inhaled EDC is carcinogenic at a risk level of greater than 1 in 10,000.

In contrast, Baertsch et al. (1991) advocated not using the gavage data to estimate the carcinogenic potency of continuous inhalation exposure at a low concentration. Their position was based on their comparison of the amount of EDC absorbed and the amount of DNA binding in the liver and lung in female F344 rats exposed to EDC at 80 ppm for 4 h (i.e., continuous low exposure) or at 4400 ppm for a few minutes (i.e., peak exposure). They showed that the amount of EDC metabolized, which was a measure of the amount of EDC absorbed, in the 12 h after the exposure was 3 times higher in the peak-exposure group than the low-exposure group. The amount of DNA binding in the liver was about 110 times higher in the peak-exposure group than in the low-exposure group. Similarly, the amounts of DNA binding in the lung differed by about 90 times in the two groups. Unfortunately, Baertsch et al. (1991) did not include a gavage-exposure group in their study, so it is difficult to disregard the carcinogenic potential of inhaled EDC on the basis of their data alone. The only conclusion from their study was that DNA binding of EDC depends on the concentration and time exposure profile.

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

Based on the gavage data of the National Cancer Institute (Ward, 1980) and assuming that equivalent amounts of EDC inhaled per day would produce the same tumor responses, EPA (1990), using a linearized multistage model, estimated that an airborne EDC concentration of 4 µg/m3 would yield an excess tumor risk of less than 1/10,000 in a continuous lifetime exposure of humans. Based on the approach of the NRC (1992) (assuming that the carcinogenesis of EDC is a three-step process, the earliest age of exposure is 30 y, and the average life span of an astronaut is 70 y), an adjustment factor of 3728, 871, or 146.7 is needed to compress the lifetime exposure at 4 µg/m3 into a much shorter continuous exposure of 7, 30, or 180 d, yielding the same tumor risk.

Some genotoxic carcinogens are known to produce tumors even after a single exposure (Williams and Weisburger, 1985). EDC is genotoxic. Consequently, its carcinogenicity has to be considered in setting the 24-h SMAC. For a 24-h exposure, an adjustment factor of 26,082 is calculated by using the NRC (1992) approach. With these adjustment factors, the EDC exposure concentrations for 24 h, 7 d, 30 d, and 180 d can be calculated and are as follows:

Exposure Duration

Concentration with a 10-4 Tumor Risk

24 h

26 ppm

7 d

4 ppm

30 d

1 ppm

180 d

0.2 ppm

Establishment of SMACs

All the ACs derived above are tabulated to show the minimum AC for each exposure duration of interest. The 1-h, 24-h, 7-d, and 30-d SMACs are all set at 0.4 ppm on the basis of the ACs for protecting against GI symptoms. Based on an exposure concentration that will yield a tumor risk of 1/10,000, 0.2 ppm is selected to be the 180-d SMAC.

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

TABLE 6-7 Acceptable Concentrations

 

 

Uncertainty Factors

 

 

To NOAEL

 

 

Microgravity

Acceptable Concentrations, ppm

Effect, Data, Reference

Species

Species

Time

1 h

24 h

7 d

30 d

180 d

CNS effects

 

LOAEL, 15 ppm, occupational exposure (Kozik, 1957)

Human

10

-

-

-

1.5

1.5

1.5

1.5

1.5

GI symptoms

 

LOAEL, 15 ppm, occupa-tional exposure (Kozik, 1957)

Human

10

-

160/40

-

0.4

0.4

0.4

0.4

0.4

Liver toxicity

 

NOAEL, 1200 ppm, 1 h (Spencer et al., 1951)

Rat

-

10

-

-

120

-

-

-

-

NOAEL, 100 ppm, 7 h/d, 5d/w, 15 or 30 w (Spencer et al., 1951)

Rat

-

10

-

-

-

10

10

-

-

NOAEL, 100 ppm, 7 h/d, 5 d/w, 15 or 30 w (Spencer et al., 1951)

Rat

-

10

HR

-

-

-

-

2.4

7.3

Impaired host defense

 

NOAEL, 2.5 ppm, 3 h/d, 5 d (Sherwood et al., 1987)

Mouse

-

-

-

3

0.8

0.8

0.8

0.8

0.8

Carcinogenesis

 

Bioassay data (Ward, 1980)

Rat, mouse

-

-

NRCa

-

-

26

4

1

0.2

SMACs

 

 

 

 

 

0.4

0.4

0.4

0.4

0.2

a NRC (1992).

—, Data not considered applicable to the exposure time; HR, Haber's rule.

Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

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×

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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×

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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×
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×
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×
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×
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×
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
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Suggested Citation:"B6: 1,2-Dichloroethane." National Research Council. 1996. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 3. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5435.
×
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The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has measured numerous airborne contaminants in spacecraft during space missions because of the potential toxicological hazards to humans that might be associated with prolonged spacecraft missions.

This volume reviews the spacecraft maximum allowable concentrations (SMACs) for various contaminants to determine whether NASA's recommended exposure limits are consistent with recommendations in the National Research Council's 1992 volume Guidelines for Developing Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Space Station Contaminants.

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