. "Index." Precision Agriculture in the 21st Century: Geospatial and Information Technologies in Crop Management. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 1997.
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Precision Agriculture in the 21st Century: Geospatial and Information Technologies in Crop Management
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Index
sensors and, 97, 98
A
floaters, 33-34, 65
Aerial photography, 35, 37 standards, 98
cost, vs satellite imagery, 38 turnkey computer systems, 78-79
crop production models, 40 Agricultural production, general, 1, 46, 49
forestry, 57 crop models, 39-40, 49-50, 53, 101
soil/crop variability, 54 crop yield and profit maps, 4
vegetation indexes, 48 data standards, ISO 8211, 98, 99
Agricultural chemicals, 77, 98 spatial dimension, 39-40, 49-50, 53
see also Fertilizers; Pest control; Agricultural productivity, general, 1, 46,
Herbicides; Variable rate technology 48, 67, 102
Agricultural extension services, 7, 90, local sensors, 97
104, 106, 114 R&D funding, 93
telecommunications, 11, 107 stochastic processes, 49-50
Agricultural inputs, 18, 49, 52, 56-57 yield mapping systems, 31, 38, 45, 49,
cost factors, 73 53, 55, 63, 66, 115
evaluation methodology, 97, 100-101, yield monitors, 22, 31, 38, 66, 78, 100,
103 115
subfield scale, 73, 101 Agricultural Research Service, 90, 91
see also Environmental issues; Agriculture Electronics Association, 98,
Agricultural chemicals 108
Agricultural machinery, 44, 65-66, 80-81, American Committee for Inoperable
82 Systems, 111
cost factors, 70-71, 80-81 American Farm Bureau Federation, 108,
forestry, 56 111
private R&D funding, 93
141
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142 INDEX
diffusion of technology, 67, 68-69, 70-
B
72
Biomass variation, 48, 55 environmental benefits vs costs, 87, 89
Biotechnology, 52, 64, 86 fertilizers, 56
germplasm, 44 fixed, 70
herbicide resistance, 52 human capital, 70, 71
private sector, 94 inputs, 73
long-term, 72-73
nutrient assays, 4
C pest control, 60, 81
California Irrigation Management remote sensing, 38, 72-73
Information System, 23-25, 66, 68 sampling strategies, 97
Cartography, see Maps and mapping subfield management, 21
Case studies, 3, 73, 74, 76, 103, 104 telecommunications, private
Cation exchange capacity, 32 investment, 106-107
Census of Agriculture, 115 weed management, 80-81
Center pivot irrigation, 67, 70 Cotton, 47, 50-51, 63, 71, 77, 86
Chemicals, see Agricultural chemicals Crop models, 5, 101-103
Committee on Criteria for Federal Support aerial photography, 40
of Research and Development, 95-96 ground-based sensors, 34
Communications, see production, 39-40, 49-50, 53, 101
Telecommunications remote sensing, 36, 37, 38
Computer products and services, 20, 31, spatial dimension, 39-40, 49-50, 53
66, 70, 71, 77, 78-79, 85, 97-99, Crop yield, see Agricultural production;
118 Agricultural productivity
CIMIS, 23-25, 66, 68
education, 104 D
expert systems, 13, 37, 77, 101
turnkey, 78-79 Data collection and processing, 5, 17, 18,
see also Data collection and processing; 92, 109, 118-119
Data ownership and privacy; crop consultant, profile, 26-27
Intellectual property; Internet data sharing, 7, 9, 11, 13, 22, 87-88, 99-
Conservation tillage, 94 100, 103, 106, 111
Cooperative Research and Development decision support systems, 41, 42-43
Agreement, 95 environmental monitoring, 87-88, 111
Cooperative State Research, Education, geographic information systems, 5, 30-
and Extension Service, 91 31
Copyright, see Intellectual property geographic scales, 19-20
Copyright Act, 111 georeferencing, 7, 22, 28-30
Corn, 53, 66, 67, 68, 70 methodology, 96-99, 100-101
Cost factors, 12, 72, 119 Natural Resources Inventory, 115-116
aerial vs satellite imagery, 38 public sector role, 10-11, 97, 112-119
agricultural machinery, 70-71, 80-81 regional, 7, 111-112
floater/variable-rate technologies, 33- soil, 9, 10, 112, 113-114, 116
34 spatial dimension, 22, 23
chemicals dealers, 77 standards, 7-8, 10, 97-98, 114, 118
cost-benefit analysis, 51, 81-82, 87, 89 see also Image processing
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INDEX 143
Data ownership and privacy, 6, 7, 10, 92, GPS, 104
108, 110-112, 118 land grant universities, 3, 9, 71, 91,
see also Intellectual property 101, 104-105
Decision support systems, 1, 4, 5, 11-12, private sector reticence, 93, 94
18, 40-43, 104 public sector role, general, 3, 90, 92
crop/information technology/decision- see also Technical assistance;
making linkage, 46 Technology diffusion
data collection/processing, 41, 42-43 Employment issues, 3, 13, 79-81, 88
expert systems, 13, 37, 77, 101 age of farmers, 81
farm size/structure impacts, 81-82 government research agencies, 91
georeferencing, 28 human capital, 70, 71
precision agriculture defined, 2 pesticides, farmworker safety, 61
spatial dimension, 41-42 rural development, 13, 79-81
theory, 100 Environmental issues, vi, 3, 9, 11-14
weather, 61 (passim), 85-89, 119
weed management, 41-42 conservation tillage, 94
Department of Agriculture, 3, 7 cost-benefit factors, 87, 89
Agricultural Research Service, 90, 91 data collection/processing, 87-88, 111
data management, 10, 116 export markets for technology, 107
evaluation/coordination role, 9, 10, 99 evaluation, 99, 100, 103-104
R&D, 90-92, 101 fertilizers, 13-14, 55-56, 85-86, 87
Department of Defense, 93 forestry, 57
see also Global Positioning System landscape analysis, 23
Differential Global Positioning System, pest control, 13-14, 60, 61, 85-86, 87
29, 32, 33, 61, 63 private sector investment, 94-95
Doppler radar, 61-62 public sector role, 96, 101, 102
Dissemination of research, see standards, 98
Technology diffusion Equipment, see Agricultural machinery
Drip irrigation, 67, 68, 70, 85 Equipment Manufacturers Institute, 98
Erosion, 23
Evaluation
E
agricultural inputs, general, 97, 100-
Economic factors, 6, 11-12, 14, 105 101, 103
evaluation, 9, 74-76, 99-101 CRADA, 95-96
farm/size structure, 12-13, 81-85, 88 databases, 111
forestry, 57 DOA role, 9, 10, 99
information technology, evaluation of economic factors, 9, 74-76, 99-101
impacts on, 74-76 environmental issues, 99, 100, 103-104
profitability, 9, 12, 45, 67, 69, 70, 72, fertilizer application, 73, 76
76, 96 information technology, economic
vertical integration, 85 impacts of, 74-76
see also Cost factors; Employment methodology, 9, 10, 18, 96-101, 103
issues; Funding; Private sector public sector role, 9, 10, 96-101
Economic Research Service, 115 see also Economic factors;
Education and training, 5-6, 104-106 Environmental issues; Standards
computer use, 104 Evapotranspiration, 23, 24-25, 36, 39
continuing professional, 6, 105 Expert systems, 13, 37, 77, 101
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144 INDEX
Extension services, see Agricultural education, 104
extension services forestry, 56, 57
Georeferencing, 7, 28
F data collection/processing, 7, 22, 28-30
see also Global Positioning System
Farm size/structure Geostatistics, 4, 5
decision support systems, 81-82 kriging, 59
economic factors, 12-13, 81-85, 88 GLObal Navigation Satellite System, 29
Federal Geographic Data Committee, 98 Global Positioning System, 5, 28-33
Federal Technology Transfer Act, 95 (passim), 38, 78, 90, 108
Fertilizers, 51, 55-59, 102 education, 104
cost factors, 56 forestry, 56
harvest timing, 48 harvest, 63
pollution, 13-14, 55-56, 85-86, 87 pesticides, 61
spatial dimension, 55, 58-59 private sector role, 94
subfield scale, 73, 101 real-time sensing, 29
synthetic, 44 Grains, 31, 66, 70, 76
variable-rate technologies, 33, 65-66, Grid soil sampling, 58-59, 66, 100, 113
76 Groundbased sensors, 34-35, 97
Floaters, 33-34, 65 floaters, 33-34, 65
Foreign trade, 107
Forestry management, 2
site-specific, 56-57 H
Freedom of Information Act, 110-111 Harvest, 63
Fruit growth, 46-47 fertilizers, 48
Fruit yield, 31 forestry, 56
Funding GPS, 63
CRADA, 95-96 machinery costs, 80-81
disclosure, 9 plant population data, 53
GPS, 91 timing, 46, 48
Internet, 91 vegetative-to-fruit growth, 47
land grant universities, 105 Herbicides, 51, 60-61
machinery, 93 forestry, 56
private, 92-95 resistant plant varieties, 52
public, 93, 95, 96 Humidity measurements, 62-63
Agricultural Research Service, 91, 92
other USDA funding, 92
I
G Image processing, 5, 10-11, 36
crop consultant, profile, 26
General Accounting Office, 107 Infrared sensing, 37
Genetic engineering, see Biotechnology vegetation indexes, 32, 36, 46-48
Geographic information systems, 5, 30-33, Inputs, see Agricultural inputs
39-40, 49, 59, 78, 94, 97, 111, 115, Insect control, see Pest control
117 Integrated pest management, 12, 59-61,
data collection/processing, 5, 30-31 66, 85, 101
decision support systems, 28
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INDEX 145
Intellectual property, copyright/patents, geographic information systems, 30-31,
108-112, 118 49
CRADA, 95 geostatistics and, 4
private sector dilemma, 93-94 GLObal Navigation Satellite System,
remote sensing, 108 29
see also Data ownership and privacy humidity, 63
Interferometry, 40 product quality, 63
Internet, 12, 20, 91, 106, 107-108 sensing techniques, general, 5
CIMIS, 23-25 soil, general, 73, 101
weather, 62 Cooperative Soil Survey, 9, 10,
Investment, see Funding 112, 113-11, 116-117
IPM, see Integrated pest management variable-rate technologies, 32, 33
Irrigation weeds, 42, 53
center pivot, 67, 70 see also Global Positioning System;
CIMIS, 23-25, 66, 68 Yield mapping systems
cotton, 47 Marketing, 6, 12, 63
drip, 67, 68, 70, 85 databases, 111
harvest timing and, 48 diffusion of technology, 69
low-volume, 66, 67-70, 83, 85 harvest dates predicted, 46
variable-rate technologies, 33 Models and modeling
ISO 8211, 98, 99 cotton growth, 50-51
crop/information technology/decision-
K making linkage, 46
crop/pest interactions, 102, 103
Kriging, 59 forestry, 56-57
multivariate, 48-51, 100, 103
L soil, 101-103
spatial, general, 4, 19-20
Land grant universities, 3, 9, 71, 91, 101, see also Crop models; Decision support
104-105 systems; Kriging
Land Remote Sensing Policy Act, 38 Multivariate analysis, 48-51, 100, 103
LANDSAT remote sensing, 38, 57, 91,
115, 119
Landscape analysis, 23 N
Legal issues, see Data ownership and NASA, see Landsat remote sensing
privacy; Intellectual property National Agricultural Statistics Service,
Lewin-Kolb model, 19 114-115
LIDAR, 57 National Cooperative Soil Survey, 9, 10,
Livestock, 2, 93, 98 112, 113-114, 116-117
Local agencies, see State and local National Information Infrastructure
agencies Council/Task Force, 108, 111
Natural Resources Conservation Service,
M 10, 115-117
see also National Cooperative Soil
Machinery, see Agricultural machinery
Survey
Maps and mapping
Natural Resources Inventory, 115-116
fertility, 73
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146 INDEX
systems approach, 48-49, 100, 101
O
Privacy, see Data ownership and privacy
Occupational safety and health, pesticides, Private sector, vi, 5, 90
61 agricultural machinery, 93
On-line systems, see Internet; biotechnology, 94
Telecommunications data processing, 11
Open GIS Foundation, 98 diffusion of technology, 90, 91-92
education, 93, 94
environmental protection, 94-95
P
evaluation, 9, 99, 101
Patents, see Intellectual property funding levels, 92-95
PC-Plant Protection, 41 GPS, 94
Pest control, 4, 16, 17, 40, 44, 51, 59-61 professional societies, 6, 98, 99, 106
cost factors, 60, 81 public sector cooperation, 95-96, 98,
crop production modeling, 39 100-101, 114-115, 118
decision support systems, 41-42 R&D, 90, 93-94
environmental issues, 60, 61 telecommunications infrastructure, 106-
GPS, 61 107
ground-based sensors, 35 weather satellites, 61-62
humidity, 62-63 Production, see Agricultural production
pollutants, 13-14, 60, 61, 85-86, 87 Productivity, see Agricultural productivity
R&D policy, 102 Professional societies, 6, 98, 99, 106
scouting, 16, 83 Profitability, 9, 12, 45, 67, 69, 70, 72, 76,
soil, 60 96
spatial dimension, general, 60-61 Public sector role, vi, 3, 5, 90, 90-119
subfield management, 21, 41-42 data collection and processing, 10-11,
see also Integrated pest management; 97, 112-119
Weed management diffusion of technology, 90-92, 100-101
Photosynthesis, 39 education, general, 3, 90, 92
Plant control, see Herbicides; Weed environmental protection, 96, 101, 102
management evaluation, 9, 10, 96-101
Plant diseases, 21 federal agencies other than DOA, 91,
scouting, 16, 83 116, 119
Pollution, see Environmental issues funding, 93, 95, 96
Precision agricultural, general, 119 Agricultural Research Service, 91, 92
ancillary uses, 77 other USDA funding, 92
components, 65 land grant universities, 3, 9, 71, 91,
conventional vs, 9, 16-17, 44, 48-51, 101, 104-105
87, 93, 94, 101 private sector cooperation, 95-96, 98,
defined, 2, 17-18 100-101, 114-115, 118
export markets for technology, 107 R&D, 3, 90-96, 101-104
farm size/structure impacts, 12-13, 81- standards, 97-99, 118
85, 88 telecommunications, 106-108
high- vs low-value crops, 77 weather satellites, 61-62
management factors, 51-52 see also Department of Agriculture;
NAS study focus, 18-19 State and local agencies; other public
service/product provision, forms, 77-79 agencies
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INDEX 147
Rural development, vi, 88-89
R
employment, 13, 79-81
Real-time processing, 4 telecommunications, 11, 13, 106-108
Global Positioning System, 29 see also Farm size/structure
ground-based, 34-35
spatial data, 22
S
variable-rate technologies, 32-33
weather, 20, 62 Satellite technology, 35-36, 37, 38, 106,
Regional dimension, 23-25 115, 119
databases, 7, 111-112 cost factors, 38
weather, 61, 62 CIMIS, 25
Remote sensing, 5, 35-39, 101 GLObal Navigation Satellite System, 29
cost of, 38, 72-73 Landsat remote sensing, 38, 57, 91,
crop growth graphs from, 47-48 115, 119
crop models, 36, 37, 38 private sector, 61-62
forestry, 56-57 weather, 61-62, 115
image processing, 5, 10-11, 26, 36 see also Global Positioning System
intellectual property issues, 108 Scouting, 16, 83
Land Remote Sensing Policy Act, 38 Seasonal factors, 48, 50
LANDSAT remote sensing, 38, 57, 91, Seeds, 52-53, 86
115, 119 germplasm, 44
privacy issues, 110-111 Sensing and sensors, 4-5
soil and crop variability, 54 real-time sensing, 4, 20, 22, 29, 32-35,
spatial data, 22, 36-38, 48 62
telecommunications, local access, 108 see also Ground-based sensors; Image
variable-rate technologies, 32, 33 processing; Remote sensing;
vegetation indexes, 32, 36, 46-48 Spectroscopy
see also Aerial photography; Infrared Social factors, vi, 11, 13, 105, 119
sensing see also Employment issues
Research and development, 27-28 Soil science, 3, 16, 51, 53-59, 67
Agricultural Research Service, 90, 91 aerial photography, 54
decision theory, 100 cation exchange capacity, 32
DOA role, 90-92, 101 CIMIS, 23-25
fertility, 90-91 Cooperative Soil Survey, 9, 10, 112,
funding, 91, 92, 93, 95-96 113-114, 116
groundbased sensors, 34-35 data collection, general, 9, 10, 112,
multidisciplinary, 5, 6-7 113-114, 116
pest control, 102 depth assessments, 53
private sector role, 90, 93-94 erosion, 23
public sector role, 3, 90-96, 101-104 fertility research, 73, 90-91
public/private sector cooperation, 95-96 forestry, 56-57
state agricultural experiment stations, georeferencing, 28
92, 94, 95 grid sampling, 58-59, 66, 100, 113
traditional vs emergent, 2, 3-6, 44, 48-51 groundbased sensors, 34-35
see also Biotechnology; Case studies; mapping, general, 73, 101
Evaluation; Technology diffusion Cooperative Soil Survey, 9, 10, 112,
Russia, 29 113-114, 116-117
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148 INDEX
modeling, 101-103 soil and crop variability, 54
nutrient assays, 4, 35 see also Infrared sensing
pesticides, 60 Standards, 7-8, 10, 97-99, 113, 114, 118
phosphorus, 32, 35, 58, 56, 57-58, 73 agricultural machinery, 98
plant genetics, drought-prone soils, 52 data collection/processing, 7-8, 10, 97-
plant population, 52-53 98, 114, 118
potassium, 35, 56, 73 diffusion of technology, 7-8, 10, 97-98
remote sensing, 54 environmental, 98
R&D policy, 102 ISO 8211, 98, 99
spatial dimension, 54, 113, 114 public sector role, 97-99, 118
grid sampling, 58-59, 66, 100, 113 spatial dimension, 99
stochastic processes, 49 telecommunications, 99
subfield management, 21, 49, 101 State and local agencies
variable-rate technologies, 32 CIMIS, 23-25, 66, 68
see also Fertilizers Cooperative Soil Survey, 9, 10, 112, 113
Soybean, 70, 77, 86 Cooperative State Research, Education,
Spatial Data Transfer Standard, 98 and Extension Service, 91
Spatial dimension, 5, 6, 17, 51 data processing and transfer, 11
CIMIS, 23-25 land grant universities, 3, 9, 71, 91,
crop production modeling, 39-40, 49- 101, 104-105
50, 53 state agricultural experiment stations,
data management, 22, 23 92, 94, 95, 99
decision support systems, 41-42 telecommunications regulation, 107
fertilizer, 55, 58-59 Statistics
forestry, 56 multivariate, 48-51, 100, 103
geographic scales of application, 19-26 regression analysis, 100, 103
heterogeneity, 44 stochastic processes, 49-50
intellectual property issues, 108 see also Data collection and processing;
landscape analysis, 23 Data ownership and privacy;
methodology, 96 103 Geostatistics
pest control, 60-61 Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation
subfield management, 21, 41-42 Act, 95
regional, 7, 23-25, 61, 62, 111-112 Stochastic processes, 49-50
remote sensing, 22, 36-38, 48 Subfield dimension, 50, 97, 111
sampling strategies, 97 agricultural inputs, general, 73, 101
soil and crop variability, 54, 113, 114 cost factors, 21
grid sampling, 58-59, 66, 100, 113 fertilizers, 73, 101
standards, 99 pest control, 21, 41-42
subfield management, 21, 41-42, 49, plant diseases, 21
50, 62, 73, 97, 101, 111 soils, 21, 49, 101
variable-rate technologies, 32-34 weather, 21, 49-50
weather, 61 Systems approach, general, 48-49, 100, 101
yield monitors, 22, 31
see also Georeferencing; Global
T
Positioning System; Maps and
mapping Technical assistance
Spectroscopy, 37 Cooperative Soil Survey, 10
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INDEX 149
crop consultants, V
diffusion of technology, 69, 71-72,
Variable-rate technology, 32-34, 38, 59,
77-79 (passim), 83
65-66, 73, 76, 86-87, 97-98
education, 104
cost, 33-34
pests control, 42
fertilizers, 33, 65-66, 76
profile of, 26-27
irrigation, 33
see also Agricultural extension services
mapping, 32, 33
Technology diffusion, 5, 13, 66-89, 90, 119
real-time processing, 32-33
crop consultants, 69, 71-72, 77-79
remote sensing, 32, 33
(passim), 83
soils, 32
cost factors, 67, 68-69, 70-72
spatial dimension, 32-34
data ownership and privacy, 6, 7, 10, 92
Vegetable yield, 31
data sharing, 7, 9, 11, 13, 22, 87-88, 99-
Vegetables, 77
100, 103, 106
Vegetation indexes, 32, 36, 46-48
marketing, 69
VRT, see Variable rate technology
private sector role, 90, 91-92
public sector role, 90-92, 100-101
standards, 7-8, 10, 97-98 W
Telecommunications, 11, 13, 106-108 Weather, 5, 17, 20, 37, 61-63, 67
agricultural extension services, 11, 107 CIMIS, 23-25, 66, 68
private investment, 106-107 decision support systems, 61
public sector role, 106-108 Doppler radar, 61-62
remote sensing, local access, 108 evapotranspiration, 23, 24-25, 36, 39
spatial scales and, 20 forestry, 56-57
standards, 99 humidity, 62-63
rural development, 11, 13, 106-108 precipitation, 62
weather data, 62 real-time processing, 20, 62
see also California Irrigation satellites, 61-62, 115
Management Information System; stochastic factor, 49-50
Internet subfield management, 21, 49-50
Telecommunications Deregulation Act of weather data, 11, 23-25, 66, 68, 107
1996, 11, 107 Weed management, 60
Temporal dimension, 17 decision support systems, 41-42
crop production modeling, 40, 49-50 machinery costs, 80-81
fertilizer, 55 mapping, 42, 53
management factors, general, 51 plant population data, 53
pesticides, 60-61 scouting, 16, 83
seasonal factors, 48, 50 see also Herbicides
weather, 61 WeedSOFT, 42, 43
see also Harvest; Seasonal factors
Topography, 67 Y
Training, see Education and training
Turnkey systems, software, 78 Yield mapping systems, 31, 38, 45, 49,
53, 63, 66, 115
fertilizers, 55
U Yield monitors, 22, 31, 38, 66, 78, 100,
USDA, see Department of Agriculture 115
