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Astronomy
and Astrophysics
for the 1980's
VOLUME 2:
Report of the Panels
Astronomy Survey Committee
Commission on Physical Sciences,
Mathematics, and Resources
National Research Council
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C. 1983
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NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was
approved by the Governing Board of the National Research
Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the
National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of
Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the
committee responsible for the report were chosen for their
special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This report has been reviewed by a group other than the
authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review
Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of
Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute
of Medicine.
The National Research Council was established by the National
Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of
science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering
knowledge and of advising the federal government. The Council
operates in accordance with general policies determined by the
Academy under the authority of its congressional charter of
1863, which establishes the Academy as a private, nonprofit,
self-governing membership corporation. The Council has become
the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of
Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in the conduct
of their services to the government, the public, and the
scientific and engineering communities. It is administered
jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. The
National Academy of Engineering and the Institute of Medicine
were established in 1964 and 1970, respectively, under the
charter of the National Academy of Sciences.
Front Cover Map of radio emission from the galaxy 3C449
recorded by the Very Large Array (VLA) radio telescope of the
National Radio Astronomy Observatory near Socorro, New Mexico.
The map reveals highly collimated jets of matter connecting an
unresolved galactic nucleus to outlying "lobes" of ejected gas.
(Photo courtesy of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory)
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 82-8014
International Standard Book Number 0-309-03334-9
Available from
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20418
Printed in the United States of America
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Panels of the
Astronomy Survey Committee
PANEL ON HIGH ENERGY ASTROPHYSICS
GEORGE W. CLARK, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Chairman ~
C. STUART BOWYER, University of California, Berkeley
RICCARDO GIACCONI, Space Telescope Science Institute
ALLAN S. JACOBSON, Jet Propulsion Laboratory
WILLIAM L. KRAUSHAAR, University of Wisconsin
DIETRICH MUELLER, University of Chicago
REUVEN RAMATY, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
DAVID SCHRAMM, University of Chicago
KIP THORNE, California Institute of Technology
CARL E. FICHTEL, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center,
ex officio
ARTHUR B. C. WALKER, Stanford University, ex officio
PANEL ON ULTAVIOLET, OPTICAL, AND INFRARED ASTRONOMY
E. JOSEPH WAMPLER, University of California, Santa Cruz,
Chairman
JACQUES BECKERS, University of Arizona
GEOFFREY BURBIDGE, Kitt Peak National Observatory
GEORGE CARRUTHERS, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory
JUDITH G. COHEN, California Institute of Technology
JOHN GALLAGHER, University of Illinois, Urbana
iii
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FRED GILLETT, Kitt Peak National Observatory
W. A. HILTNER, University of Michigan
WILLIAM F. HOFFMANN, University of Arizona
JEFFREY LINSKY, Joint Institute for Laboratory
Astrophysics and the University of Colorado
J. BEVERLEY ORE, California Institute of Technology
VERA RUBIN, Carnegie Institution of Washington
RAINDER WEISS, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
SIDNEY C. WOLFF, University of Hawaii
DONALD YORK, Princeton University
Consultants
J. ROGER ANGEL, University of Arizona
JESSE GREENSTEIN, California Institute of Technology
LYMAN SPITZER, Princeton University
STEPHEN E. STROM, Kitt Peak National Observatory
PANEL ON RADIO ASTRONOMY
PATRICK THADDEUS, NASA Goddard Institute for Space
Studies and Columbia University, Chairman
BERNARD BURKE, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
MARSHALL COHEN, California Institute of Technology
FRANK DRAKE, Cornell University
MORTON ROBERTS, National Radio Astronomy Observatory
JOSEPH TAYLOR, Princeton University
WILLIAM J. WELCH, University of California, Berkeley
DAVID WILKINSON, Princeton University
ROBERT WILSON, Bell Laboratories
Consultant
GEORGE A. DULK, University of Colorado
PANEL ON THEORETICAL AND LABORATORY ASTROPHYSICS
RICHARD A. McC RAY, Joint Institute for Laboratory
Astrophysics and the University of Colorado, Chairman
W. DAVID ARNETT, University of Chicago
ROGER BLANDFORD, California Institute of Technology
ALEXANDER DALGARNO, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for
Astrophysics
WILLIAM FOWLER, California Institute of Technology
WILLIAM PRESS, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics
SCOTT D. TREMAINE, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
JAMES G. WILLIAMS, Jet Propulsion Laboratory
iv
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Consultants
ARTHUR N. COX, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory
KRIS DAVIDSON, University of Minnesota
VICTOR G. SZEBEHELY, University of Texas, Austin
C. BRUCE TARTER, Lawrence Livermore Laboratory
PANEL ON DATA PROCESSING AND COMPUTATIONAL FACILITIES
EDWARD J. GROTH, Princeton University, Chairman
ROBERT M. HJELLMING, National Radio Astronomy Observatory
RICHARD B. LARSON, Yale University
JAYLEE M. MEAD, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
RICHARD H. MILLER, University of Chicago
BERNARD OLIVER, Hewlett-Packard Corporation
STEPHEN E. STROM, Kitt Peak National Observatory
PAUL R. WOODWARD, Lawrence Livermore Laboratory
PANEL ON ORGANIZATON, EDUCATION, AND PERSONNEL
RICHARD C. HENRY, The John Hopkins University, Chairman
PETER B. BOYCE, American Astronomical Society
NOEL W. HINNERS, Smithsonian Institution
HENRY L. SHIPMAN, University of Delaware
ELSKE V. P. SMITH, Virginia Commonwealth University
DONNA E. WEISTROP, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
Consultants
DONALD W. GOLDSMITH, Interstellar Media
MARTHA H. LILLER, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for
Astrophysics
WAYNE OSBORN, Central Michigan University
R. MARCUS PRICE, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque
v
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Astronomy Survey Committee
GEORGE B. FIELD, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for
Astrophysics, Chairman
MICHAEL J. S. BELTON, Kitt Peak National Observatory
E. MARGARET BURBIDGE, University of California, San Diego
GEORGE W. CLARK, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
S. M. FABER, University of California, Santa Cruz
CARL E. FICHTEL, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
ROBERT D. GEHRZ, University of Wyoming
EDWARD J. GROTH, Princeton University
JAMES E. GUNN, Princeton University
DAVID HEESCHEN, National Radio Astronomy Observatory
RICHARD C. HENRY, The Johns Hopkins University
RICHARD A. McC RAY, Joint Institute for Laboratory
Astrophysics and the University of Colorado
JEREMIAH OSTRIKER, Princeton University
EUGENE N. PARKER, University of Chicago
MAARTEN SCHMIDT, California Institute of Technology
HARLAN J. SMITH, University of Texas, Austin
STEPHEN E. STROM, Kitt Peak National Observatory
(ex officio)
PATRICK THADDEUS, NASA Goddard Institute for Space
Studies and Columbia University
CHARLES H. TOWNS, University of California, Berkeley
ARTHUR B. C. WALKER, Stanford University
E. JOSEPH WAMPLER, University of California, Santa Cruz
PAUL BLANCHARD, Executive Secretarv
DALE Z. RINKEL, Administrative Secretary
vi
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-
Commission on Physical Sciences
Mathematics and Resources
HERBERT FRIEDMAN, National Research Council, Cochairman
ROBERT M. WHITE, University Corporation for Atmospheric
Research, Cochairman
STANLEY I. AUERBACH, Oak Ridge National Laboratory
ELKAN R. BLOUT, Harvard Medical School
WILLIAM BROWDER, Princeton University
BERNARD F. BURKE, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
HERMAN CHERNOFF, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
WALTER R. ECKELMANN, Exxon Corporation
JOSEPH L. FISHER, Office of the Governor, Commonwealth of
Virginia
JAMES C. FLETCHER, University of Pittsburgh
WILLIAM A. FOWLER, California Institute of Technology
GERHART FRIEDLANDER, Brookhaven National Laboratory
EDWARD A. FRIEMAN, Science Applications, Inc.
EDWARD D. GOLDBERG, Scripps Institution of Oceanography
KONRAD B. KRAUSKOPF, Stanford University
CHARLES J. MANKIN, Oklahoma Geological Survey
WALTER H. MONK, University of California, San Diego
NORTON NELSON, New York University Medical Center
DANIEL A. OKUN, University of North Carolina
GEORGE E. PAKE, Xerox Research Center
CHARLES K. REED, National Research Council
HATTEN S. YODER, JR., Carnegie Institution of Washington
RAPHAEL G. KASPER, Executive Director
· ~
V11
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Preface
This volume contains the contributions submitted by six
Panels to the Astronomy Survey Committee, whose report,
Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1980's, Volume 1:
Report of the Astronomy Survey Committee (National Academy
Press, Washington, D.C., 1982), accompanies this volume.
Chapters 2, 4, 5, 6, and 7 of Volume 1 draw heavily on the
material here.
The National Academy of Sciences charged the Astronomy
Survey Committee with making recommendations for programs
and facilities needed to meet the opportunities for
progress in astronomical research during the 1980's. To
carry out this charge, the Committee organized panels of
experts to propose recommendations in six areas of astro-
nomical research, five of which were defined by techniques
of study. Scientific questions identified by seven
working groups were helpful to the panels in evaluating
the potential of various proposed programs and facilities
to maximize scientific return.
The panels studied observational programs in high-
energy astrophysics (including x rays and gamma rays, as
well as high-energy neutrinos and gravitational waves);
in ultraviolet, optical, and infrared astronomy (includ-
ing radiation ranging from a few hundred angstroms to a
few hundred micrometers wavelength); and in radio
astronomy (including all longer wavelengths). The Panel
on Ultraviolet, Optical, and Infrared Astronomy had a
particularly difficult task, as its purview included a
1X
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substantial fraction of all astronomy; however, the Survey
Committee felt it was important to include a consideration
of all three wavelength bands within a single panel study
because of the commonality of the telescopes and, to some
extent, of the detectors employed. This was a novel
experiment, and it worked well.
A fourth panel addressed problems in the area of theo-
retical and laboratory astrophysics. Although the two
approaches are very different, both are directed toward
the interpretation of astronomical information gathered
by observational means, and both are rooted in physics.
The combination proved to be a fruitful one. A fifth
panel, on data processing and computational facilities,
addressed the utilization of computers for data reduction
and analysis as well as for theoretical modeling. Final-
ly, a sixth panel, on organization, education, and per-
sonnel, was charged with a more general investigation of
the health of the professions involved in astronomical
research.
Each panel drafted reports indicating how the technical
means in their areas could best address the scientific
problems of which they were aware, as well as those prob-
lems discussed in the working group reports circulated to
the panels. m e panel reports were reviewed by the work-
ing groups to assure that they were, in fact, responsive
to the scientific opportunities. The panel reports were
then considered by the parent committee. me programs and
facilities recommended in them were examined individually
by the Survey Committee, and the relative scientific im-
portance of each assessed. The final recommendations of
the Astronomy Survey Committee, while those of the com-
mittee alone (see Volume 1), also reflect its judgment of
the importance attached to each of the programs and
facilities proposed by the panels.
Each program or facility mentioned in the report of
the Astronomy Survey Committee is usually discussed at
greater length in an appropriate panel report. As part
of the process of establishing priorities, a number of
programs and facilities proposed by the panels were not,
finally, recommended by the committee. Descriptions of
such programs and facilities found in the panel reports
may nevertheless may be valuable in developing a balanced
research program for astronomy and astrophysics.
Astronomy embraces a wide variety of techniques and
approaches, and, as a consequence, the Astronomy Survey
Committee could not include experts in all fields. The
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panels could and did. Without them, the work of the
committee would have been impossible. With the aid of
their reports, whose quality is manifested in this
volume, it was possible to frame an overall program that
will make substantial progress in the next decade on many
exciting frontiers of science.
X1
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C~1 LW1 ~
1 HIGH-ENERGY ASTROPHYSICS
I. INTRODUCTION
II. THE NATURE OF HIGH-ENERGY ASTRONOMY AND THE
SCOPE OF THE REPORT
III. SUMMARY OF PRINCIPAL RECOMMENDATIONS
A. Major Programs, 9
1. Advanced X-Ray Astrophysics Facility, 9
2. Cosmic-Ray Studies, 9
3. Facility-Class Instruments for
Solar Astronomy within the Spacelab
Program, 9
4. Augmentation of Funding for the
Explorer Program, 10
5. Development of Advanced Instrumentation
through the Spacelab Program, 10
B. Smaller Programs, 10
1. Solar Neutrino Detectors, 10
2. Development and Deployment of
Detectors for Gravitational Waves, 11
3. Increased Support for Theoretical
High-Energy Astrophysics, 11
4. Support of Rocket and Balloon
Programs, 12
5. Support for Air-Shower Studies, 12
IV. X-RAY ASTRONOMY
A. Introduction, 12
· . .
x~ ~ ~
1
1
2
9
12
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B. Progress during the 1970's, 14
1. Major Achievements, 14
2. State of Knowledge, 17
3. State of Instrumentation, 24
C. Scientific Goals for the 1980's, 25
1. Low-Luminosity Galactic Sources, 26
2. High-Luminosity Galactic Sources, 26
3. Globular Clusters, 27
4. Supernova Remnants, 27
5. Interstellar Medium, 27
6. Normal Galaxies, 27
7. Active Galactic Nuclei, 28
8. Clusters of Galaxies, 28
9. The X-Ray Background, 28
D. Inventory of Present or Approved
Resources, 29
Opportunities and Requirements for
Future Programs, 30
1. Large X-Ray Observatories, 31
2. Explorer Missions, 33
3. Long-Duration Balloon Flights, 36
4. Spacelab, 36
5. Sounding Rockets, 37
6. Supporting Research and Technology,
Including Balloons, 37
7. Theory and Data Analysis, 38
V. EXTREME-ULTRAVIOLET ASTRONOMY
A. Introduction, 38
B. Scientific Goals for the 1980's, 39
1. Stellar Chromospheres, Transition
Regions, Coronas, and Flares, 39
2. Cataclysmic Variable Stars and
Magnetic White Dwarfs, 40
3. Hot White Dwarfs, 41
4. The Interstellar Medium, 41
C. Inventory of Present or Approved
Resources, 42
D. New Facilities Proposed for the 1980's, 42
E. Summary and Recommendations, 43
GAMMA-RAY ASTRONOMY
A. Introduction, 43
B. Progress during the 1970's, 44
C. Scientific Goals for the 1980's, 47
1. Compact Objects, 48
2. Gamma-Ray Lines from the Products of
Nucleosynthesis, 48
x~v
38
43
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3. Gamma-Ray Bursts and Other Transient
Phenomena, 49
4. Galactic Gamma-Ray Emission, 49
5. Extragalactic Gamma Rays, 50
D. Inventory of Present or Approved
Resources, 50
E. Comparison of Goals with Present or
Approved Resources, 52
F. Opportunities and Requirements for New
Programs, 53
1. Gamma-Ray Transient Explorer, 53
2. Advanced Gamma-Ray Experiments, 54
3. Ground-Based Instruments for Very-
High-Energy Gamma-Ray Observations, 54
4. Supporting Research and Development, 55
VII. COSMIC-RAY ASTRONOMY
A. Introduction, 55
B. Progress during the 1970's, 58
1. Instrumentation and Vehicles, 58
2. Scientific Accomplishments, 60
C. Scientific Goals for the 1980's, 62
1. Isotopic Composition from Hydrogen
through Nickel, 62
2. Elemental Composition of the Ultra-
heavy Nuclei, 62
3. Elemental Composition at High
Energies, 63
4. Energy Spectrum of Electrons at
High Energies, 63
5. The Composition and Origins of
Ultra-High-Energy Cosmic Rays, 64
6. Low-Energy Cosmic Rays (<300
MeV/Nucleon) in Interstellar Space, 64
7. Solar-System Cosmic Rays, 64
D. Inventory of Present or Approved
Resources, 65
1. Small Satellites and Space Probes, 65
2. Large Spacecraft, 65
3. Space Shuttle, 65
4. Balloons, 66
5. Air-Shower Detectors, 66
E. Recommendations for the 1980's, 66
1. The Cosmic-Ray Platform, 66
2. Missions outside the Magnetosphere, 67
3. Deep-Space Missions, 68
4. Balloons, 68
5. Air-Shower Observations, 69
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55
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VIII. HIGH-ENERGY SOLAR ASTRONOMY
A. Introduction, 69
B. Progress during the 1970' s, 72
1. General Features of the Solar
Atmosphere, 72
2 . Transient Events, 7 5
3. Long-Term Variability, 76
Scientific Objectives of High-Energy
Solar Astronomy, 7 7
D. Inventory of Present or Approved
Resources, 78
E. Capabilities of Present or Approved
Resources, 79
F. New Facilities and Programs for the
1980' s, 79
1. Shuttle Facilities, 8 0
2. Solar Coronal Explorer, 81
3. Interplanetary Laboratory (IPL), 8 2
4. Advanced Solar Observatory, 82
5. Other Missions and Programs of
Significance to Solar Physics, 82
G. Summary and Principal Recommendations, 8 3
IX. NEUTRINO ASTRONOMY
A. Low-Energy Neutrinos, 85
1. Introduction, 85
2. Progress during the 1970's, 8 5
3. Scientific Goals: Present and
Future Programs, 86
4. Research in Other Countries, 87
B. Intermediate-Energy Neutrinos, 87
1. Introduction, 87
2. Inventory of Present Resources, 8 7
3. Scientific Goals and Future
Programs, 88
C. High-Energy Neutrinos, 88
1. Introduction, 88
2. Present and Future Programs, 89
to ~
X. GRAVITATIONAL-WAVE ASTRONOMY
A. Introduction, 90
1. Verify the Existence of Gravi-
tational Waves and Use Them to Test
the General Theory of Relativity, 90
2. Harness Gravitational Waves for
Observational Astronomy, 90
Progress during the 1970's, 92
1. Ground-Based Detectors, 92
xvi
69
84
90
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D.
2. The Earth as a Detector, 93
3. Doppler Tracking of Spacecraft, 93
4. The Binary Pulsar, 94
5. Gravitational-Wave Theory, 94
Inventory of Present or Approved
Resources, 94
Recommendations for the 1980's, 95
1. Ground-Based Detector Program, 95
2. Space-Based Detectors, 96
3. Theoretical Studies, 97
2 ULTRAVIOLET, OPTICAL, AND INFRARED ASTRONOMY 98
I. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
A. Recommendations for Major Initiatives, 98
B. Scientific Achievements and
Opportunities, 101
98
II. HIGHLIGHTS OF ASTRONOMY IN THE 1970'S 103
A. Management, Facilities, and
Instrumentation, 103
B. Scientific Programs, 107
1. Galactic Astronomy, 107
2. Extragalactic Astronomy, 114
3. Solar Astronomy, 118
III. SCIENCE OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE 1980's
A. Introduction, 119
B. Scientific Programs, 121
1. Galactic Astronomy, 121
2. Extragalactic Astronomy, 126
3. Astrometry, 130
4. Solar Physics, 131
IV. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE WOIR PROGRAM
FOR THE 1980'S
A. Major Recommendations, 135
1. The 15-Meter New Technology Telescope
and Closely Related Projects, 135
2. A Large Deployable Reflector
in Space, 147
Far-Ultraviolet Spectrograph
in Space, 152
4. Advanced Solar Observatory, 154
5. Requirements for Improved Detectors
and Instrumentation in the 1980's, 155
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B. Endorsement of Continuing NASA
Programs, 161
1. The Space Telescope, 161
2. m e NASA Infrared Astronomy Program, 162
3. Solar Optical Telescope, 164
C. Recommendations for Other Outstanding
Programs and Projects for the 1980's, 166
1. Solar-Physics Program, 167
2. Sky Surveys Needed to Support Major
Missions, 169
3. Planetary Observations, 172
4. Observatory Support, 173
5. 2.5-5-Meter Telescope Program, 175
6. Moderate Cost Space Missions, 176
V. PROJECTIONS INTO THE FUTURE
A. Management Considerations, 178
B. Instrumentation in the 1990's, 180
C. The Direction of Scientific Research
in the 1990's, 183
178
1. Large Gains in Angular Resolution, 184
2. Increased Light-Gathering Power, 186
3. Increased Capability for Study of
Objects with Low Surface Brightness, 186
VI. EPILOGUE
APPENDIX 2.A TELESCOPES FOR WOIR
APPENDIX 2.B FOCAL-PLANE INSTRUMENTATION AND
DETECTORS
3 RADIO ASTRONOMY
I. INTRODUCTION: SCOPE OF THE REPORT
II. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS
A. Highest Priority, 212
B. Other Recommendations, 213
C. General Recommendations, 214
III. DESCRIPTION OF RECOMMENDED PROJECTS
AND FACILITIES
A. Very-Long-Baseline (VLB) Array, 214
B. 10-Meter Submillimeter-Wave Telescope, 217
· . .
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189
197
211
211
212
214
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I.
C. Space VLBI, 219
1. State of Technological Readiness, 222
2. Elliptic Orbit Studies, 223
3. Cost Estimates, 223
D. 100-Meter Telescope, 224
E. 10-pm Heterodyne Interferometer, 226
F. Steps toward a Submillimeter
Telescope in Space, 227
G. Solar Radio Astronomy, 227
H. A Millimeter-Wave Telescope in the
Southern Hemisphere, 228
Upgrading National Facilities, 228
SCIENTIFIC PRIORITIES
A. Cosmology, 229
B. Galaxies, 235
C. Quasars and Galactic Nuclei, 237
D. Interstellar Matter and Star Formation, 243
E. Stars and Pulsars, 249
F. The Sun, 253
G. The Planets, 256
REFERENCE TO LIST OF RADIO AND RADAR
ASTRONOMY OBSERVATORIES
229
4 THEORETICAL AND LABORATORY ASTROPHYSICS
258
259
I. INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 259
A. Theoretical Astrophysics, 259
B. Laboratory Astrophysics, 260
II. THEORETICAL ASTROPHYSICS
A. The Nature and Role of Theory in
Astrophysics, 262
B. Accomplishments of the 1970's, 267
C. Scientific Questions for the 1980's, 271
D. The Current State of Theoretical
Astrophysics, 274
1. The Impact of the Greenstein Report, 274
2. Current Resources for Theoretical
Astrophysics, 275
E. Recommendations for Theoretical
Astrophysics, 279
262
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III. LABORATORY ASTROPHYSICS
A. Atomic and Molecular Physics
and Chemistry, 286
B. Nuclear Physics, 290
C. Elementary-Particle Physics, 293
D. Solid-State Physics and Chemistry, 294
E. The Physics of Condensed Matter, 295
F. Plasma Physics, 296
G. Fluid Mechanics, 297
H. Recommendations for Laboratory
Astrophysics, 298
5 DATA PROCESSING AND COMPUTATIONAL FACILITIES
I. INTRODUCTION
II. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
THE TREND TOWARD DECENTRALIZATION
IV. THEORETICAL COMPUTING
V. IMAGE PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS
VI. DATA ARCHIVING
ASTRONOMICAL DATA BASES
VIII. TELECOMMUNICATIONS
IX. SPECIALIZED ARCHITECTURES
APPENDIX 5.A: THE "CANONICAL" SYSTEM
6 ORGANIZATION, EDUCATION, AND PERSONNEL
I. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS
A. Maintenance of Scientific Talent, 334
B. Other Issues in the Practice of
Astronomy, 335
1. Personnel, 335
2. Education, 336
3. Organization, 337
XX
286
302
302
305
307
309
315
324
326
327
329
330
334
334
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II. MAINTENANCE OF SCIENTIFIC TALENT
338
III. OTHER ISSUES IN THE PRACTICE OF ASTRONOMY 350
A. Personnel, 350
B. Education, 351
C. Organization, 355
IV. ASTRONOMY AND THE ASTRONOMERS IN THE 1970'S 361
A. The Astronomical Profession in 1979, 362
B. The Astronomical "Pipeline", 363
C. Trends with Time, 368
1. Is There a Job Crisis?, 369
2. The Changing Relationship between
Physics and Astronomy, 372
3. What Happens to Those Who Leave
Astronomy?, 375
4. Who Pays Astronomers' Salaries?, 376
5. The Future, 377
6. Causes of the Problem, 378
7. Possible Grounds for Optimism, 382
8. Grounds for Pessimism: Possible
Markets That Don't Exist, 387
D. Research Trends, 389
E. International Cooperation, 391
F. Astronomical Facilities, 397
G. Public Communication, 400
1. Planetaria, 400
2. Magazines, 401
3. Books, 401
4. Media, 401
5. Evening Programs, 402
6. Public Lectures, 402
7. Amateur Activities, 402
H. Funding Trends, 403
1. Introduction, 403
2. Astronomy's Competitive Position, 404
3. NASA Funding for Astronomy, 404
4. NSF Funding for Astronomy, 409
APPENDIX 6.A
APPENDIX A ABBREVIATIONS USED IN TEXT
414
439
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