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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Radiation Hazards to Crews of Interplanetary Missions: Biological Issues and Research Strategies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5540.
×

Radiation Hazards to Crews of Interplanetary Missions

Biological Issues and Research Strategies

Task Group on the Biological Effects of Space Radiation

Space Studies Board

Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and Applications

National Research Council

NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C.
1996

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Radiation Hazards to Crews of Interplanetary Missions: Biological Issues and Research Strategies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5540.
×

NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committees responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.

This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.

The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.

The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. William A. Wulf is interim president of the National Academy of Engineering.

The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.

The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce Alberts and Dr. William A. Wulf are chairman and interim vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.

Support for this project was provided by Contract NASW 4627 and Contract NASW 96013 between the National Academy of Sciences and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Copyright 1996 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Copies of this report are available from

Space Studies Board

National Research Council

2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20418

Printed in the United States of America

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Radiation Hazards to Crews of Interplanetary Missions: Biological Issues and Research Strategies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5540.
×

TASK GROUP ON THE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF SPACE RADIATION

RICHARD SETLOW,

Brookhaven National Laboratory,

Chair

JOHN F. DICELLO,

Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine

R.J. MICHAEL FRY,

Oak Ridge National Laboratory

JOHN B. LITTLE,

Harvard University School of Public Health

R. JULIAN PRESTON,

Chemical Industry Institute of Toxicology

JAMES B. SMATHERS,

University of California, Los Angeles

ROBERT L. ULLRICH,

University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston


SANDRA J. GRAHAM, Study Director

SHOBITA PARTHASARATHY, Research Assistant

VICTORIA P. FRIEDENSEN, Former Senior Program Assistant

CATHY GRUBER, Senior Program Assistant

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Radiation Hazards to Crews of Interplanetary Missions: Biological Issues and Research Strategies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5540.
×

SPACE STUDIES BOARD

CLAUDE R. CANIZARES,

Massachusetts Institute of Technology,

Chair

MARK R. ABBOTT,

Oregon State University

JOHN A. ARMSTRONG,*

IBM Corporation (retired)

JAMES P. BAGIAN,

Environmental Protection Agency

DANIEL N. BAKER,

University of Colorado

LAWRENCE BOGORAD,

Harvard University

DONALD E. BROWNLEE,

University of Washington

JOHN J. DONEGAN,

John Donegan Associates, Inc.

GERARD W. ELVERUM, JR.,

TRW Space and Technology Group

ANTHONY W. ENGLAND,

University of Michigan

DANIEL J. FINK,*

D.J. Fink Associates, Inc.

MARTIN E. GLICKSMAN,

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

RONALD GREELEY,

Arizona State University

BILL GREEN, former member,

U.S. House of Representatives

NOEL W. HINNERS,*

Lockheed Martin Astronautics Company

ANDREW H. KNOLL,

Harvard University

JANET G. LUHMANN,

University of California, Berkeley

JOHN H. McELROY,*

University of Texas, Arlington

ROBERTA BALSTAD MILLER,

CIESIN

BERRIEN MOORE III,

University of New Hampshire

KENNETH H. NEALSON,

University of Wisconsin

MARY JANE OSBORN,

University of Connecticut Health Center

SIMON OSTRACH,

Case Western Reserve University

MORTON B. PANISH,

AT&T Bell Laboratories (retired)

CARLÉ M. PIETERS,

Brown University

MARCIA J. RIEKE,

University of Arizona

JOHN A. SIMPSON,

Enrico Fermi Institute

ROBERT E. WILLIAMS,

Space Telescope Science Institute

MARC S. ALLEN, Director

*  

Former member.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Radiation Hazards to Crews of Interplanetary Missions: Biological Issues and Research Strategies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5540.
×

COMMISSION ON PHYSICAL SCIENCES, MATHEMATICS, AND APPLICATIONS

ROBERT J. HERMANN,

United Technologies Corporation,

Co-chair

W. CARL LINEBERGER,

University of Colorado,

Co-chair

PETER M. BANKS,

Environmental Research Institute of Michigan

LAWRENCE D. BROWN,

University of Pennsylvania

RONALD G. DOUGLAS,

Texas A&M University

JOHN E. ESTES,

University of California, Santa Barbara

L. LOUIS HEGEDUS,

Elf Atochem North America, Inc.

JOHN E. HOPCROFT,

Cornell University

RHONDA J. HUGHES,

Bryn Mawr College

SHIRLEY A. JACKSON,

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission

KENNETH H. KELLER,

University of Minnesota

KENNETH I. KELLERMANN,

National Radio Astronomy Observatory

MARGARET G. KIVELSON,

University of California, Los Angeles

DANIEL KLEPPNER,

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

JOHN KREICK,

Sanders, a Lockheed Martin Company

MARSHA I. LESTER,

University of Pennsylvania

THOMAS A. PRINCE,

California Institute of Technology

NICHOLAS P. SAMIOS,

Brookhaven National Laboratory

L.E. SCRIVEN,

University of Minnesota

SHMUEL WINOGRAD,

IBM T.J. Watson Research Center

CHARLES A. ZRAKET,

MITRE Corporation (retired)

NORMAN METZGER, Executive Director

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Radiation Hazards to Crews of Interplanetary Missions: Biological Issues and Research Strategies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5540.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Radiation Hazards to Crews of Interplanetary Missions: Biological Issues and Research Strategies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5540.
×

Foreword

Astronauts who venture beyond the protection of Earth's atmosphere and magnetosphere risk exposure to levels of radiation far exceeding those on Earth. Of all the risks they face, this one is probably the most straightforward to control—by providing adequate shielding. However, because shielding adds weight, cost, and complexity to space vehicles, it is very important for designers to have a good, quantitative understanding of the true risk and its degree of certainty.

This report assesses our understanding of radiation hazards in space. It also considers the additional research needed to reduce the areas of uncertainty, research that must be completed prior to undertaking the detailed design of a vehicle carrying crew members into space for periods of extended exposure. The report finds that it will take more than a decade of research to answer even the narrowest set of key questions, although happily the needed studies can all be conducted on the ground rather than in space.

The nation has backed away from a specific timetable for human exploration of the moon and Mars. Yet it seems plausible that such expeditions will be mounted sometime in the first quarter of the 21st century, especially given the recent resurgence of interest in possible life on Mars from the study of meteorites. It becomes clear, when the lengthy time scale of the research is also taken into account, that the present report is indeed timely and should receive prompt consideration by NASA planners.

CLAUDE R. CANIZARES, CHAIR

SPACE STUDIES BOARD

Page viii Cite
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Radiation Hazards to Crews of Interplanetary Missions: Biological Issues and Research Strategies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5540.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Radiation Hazards to Crews of Interplanetary Missions: Biological Issues and Research Strategies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5540.
×

Preface

The study that is the subject of this report was initiated as a result of a series of discussions between the leaders of NASA's Office of Life and Microgravity Sciences and Applications (OLMSA), NASA's Life and Biomedical Sciences Division (LBSAD), and the Space Studies Board's Committee on Space Biology and Medicine (CSBM). In order to address concerns within NASA and CSBM regarding the many uncertainties in the understanding of radiation hazards to the crew of long-duration missions in space, CSBM formed an expert task group on radiation biology and physics whose members had no direct involvement with NASA's radiation programs. A CSBM member with the appropriate expertise was appointed to lead the group.

The Task Group on the Biological Effects of Space Radiation (TGBESR) was asked to review current knowledge on the effects of long-term exposure to radiation in a space environment and to consider NASA radiation shielding requirements for orbital and interplanetary spacecraft. The task group was charged with assessing the adequacy of NASA planning for the protection of humans from radiation in those environments and with making recommendations regarding needed research and/or new shielding requirements. Where feasible, the task group would also provide NASA with radiation safety guidelines.

Early in the study the task group was informed by NASA that plans for the international space station were at such an advanced stage that any recommendations affecting shielding of orbital craft could not be implemented by the agency. The task group therefore decided to concentrate on the radiation hazards of interplanetary missions. Further, at the urging of NASA, the task group has attempted to provide reasonable estimates of time lines for completing the radiation research it has recommended.

Although the recommendations of the task group are published here as a separate and independent report of TGBESR, it is the intent of CSBM that this report will also form the basis of a section in a space life sciences strategy report being prepared by CSBM for publication at a later date.

During the course of this study the task group was briefed extensively by representatives of OLMSA and LBSAD regarding NASA's planning for deep-space missions and projections for radiation shielding. The task group also received in-depth technical briefings on the status of NASA's radiation research and the agency's current understanding of radiation hazards, and it consulted a wide range of technical documentation. When verification or additional details of prior research were needed, task group members made direct queries to the pertinent investigators in the radiation research community.

A number of individuals who assisted the task group by supplying information deserve special thanks for their contributions: Harry Holloway, Frank Sulzman, and Walter Schimmerling of NASA headquarters; John Wilson of NASA Langley Research Center; Amy Kronenberg of Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; and Gregory Nelson of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Radiation Hazards to Crews of Interplanetary Missions: Biological Issues and Research Strategies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5540.
×
This page in the original is blank.
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Radiation Hazards to Crews of Interplanetary Missions: Biological Issues and Research Strategies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5540.
×
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Radiation Hazards to Crews of Interplanetary Missions: Biological Issues and Research Strategies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5540.
×
   

Variation in Susceptibility to Radiation Across Subject Types

 

28

   

DNA Repair

 

29

   

Repair of Oxidative Damage and Double-Strand Breaks

 

29

   

Other Studies

 

30

   

Conclusion

 

31

   

Loss of Research Programs

 

31

   

References

 

32

3

 

How to Reduce Risk and the Uncertainty in Risk Estimates

 

35

   

Shielding

 

35

   

Recommendations for Research to Better Determine Shielding Requirements

 

35

   

Knowledge Base Development

 

35

   

Shielding Approaches

 

36

   

Cost of Research vs. Cost of Excess Shielding

 

38

   

Radioprotective and Chemoprotective Drugs and Diet

 

38

   

Crew Selection

 

39

   

Optimal Time for Flight

 

39

   

Solar Particle Event Warning System

 

40

   

Flares

 

40

   

Coronal Mass Ejections/Interplanetary Shocks

 

40

   

Conclusions

 

40

   

References

 

40

4

 

Priority Research Questions and Strategies

 

42

   

Higher-Priority Research Questions

 

42

   

Lower-Priority Research Questions

 

47

   

Time Scale of Research

 

50

   

What Will Still Remain Unknown, and What Risk Does This Represent?

 

54

   

References

 

54

5

 

Other Issues

 

55

   

Need for Animal Use

 

55

   

Experimental Techniques and New Data Required

 

56

   

Ground-vs. Space-based Research

 

56

   

Plants and Food Supply

 

57

   

References

 

57

 

 

Appendixes

 

 

   

A Acronyms and Abbreviations

 

61

   

B Glossary

 

63

   

C Beam Sources

 

69

   

D Previous Advice of the National Research Council Regarding the BEVALAC Facility

 

72

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Radiation Hazards to Crews of Interplanetary Missions: Biological Issues and Research Strategies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5540.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Radiation Hazards to Crews of Interplanetary Missions: Biological Issues and Research Strategies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5540.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Radiation Hazards to Crews of Interplanetary Missions: Biological Issues and Research Strategies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5540.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Radiation Hazards to Crews of Interplanetary Missions: Biological Issues and Research Strategies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5540.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Radiation Hazards to Crews of Interplanetary Missions: Biological Issues and Research Strategies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5540.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Radiation Hazards to Crews of Interplanetary Missions: Biological Issues and Research Strategies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5540.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Radiation Hazards to Crews of Interplanetary Missions: Biological Issues and Research Strategies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5540.
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Page R7
Page viii Cite
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Radiation Hazards to Crews of Interplanetary Missions: Biological Issues and Research Strategies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5540.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Radiation Hazards to Crews of Interplanetary Missions: Biological Issues and Research Strategies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5540.
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Page R9
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Radiation Hazards to Crews of Interplanetary Missions: Biological Issues and Research Strategies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5540.
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Page R10
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Radiation Hazards to Crews of Interplanetary Missions: Biological Issues and Research Strategies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5540.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1996. Radiation Hazards to Crews of Interplanetary Missions: Biological Issues and Research Strategies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5540.
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NASA's long-range plans include possible human exploratory missions to the moon and Mars within the next quarter century. Such missions beyond low Earth orbit will expose crews to transient radiation from solar particle events as well as continuous high-energy galactic cosmic rays ranging from energetic protons with low mean linear energy transfer (LET) to nuclei with high atomic numbers, high energies, and high LET. Because the radiation levels in space are high and the missions long, adequate shielding is needed to minimize the deleterious health effects of exposure to radiation.

The knowledge base needed to design shielding involves two sets of factors, each with quantitative uncertainty—the radiation spectra and doses present behind different types of shielding, and the effects of the doses on relevant biological systems. It is only prudent to design shielding that will protect the crew of spacecraft exposed to predicted high, but uncertain, levels of radiation and biological effects. Because of the uncertainties regarding the degree and type of radiation protection needed, a requirement for shielding to protect against large deleterious, but uncertain, biological effects may be imposed, which in turn could result in an unacceptable cost to a mission. It therefore is of interest to reduce these uncertainties in biological effects and shielding requirements for reasons of mission feasibility, safety, and cost.

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