|
Items in cart [0] |
Questions? Call 888-624-8373 |
| ||||||||||||
| Copyright © 2009. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Terms of Use and Privacy Statement |
Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole.
Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter.
Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.
Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines.
OCR for page 283
-
CHAPTER 7
School and Children:
The Micldle Chitc~hooc! Years
Edgar G. Epps and Sylvia F. Smith
This chapter is primarily concerned with the effects of schools and
schooling on children ages 6-12. However, because formal schooling
in the United States and many other nations frequently begins between ages
4 and 5, some of the research and theory reviewed encompasses this earlier
period as well.
Throughout the world the most widely recognized function of elementary
schools is to provide opportunities for children to acquire at least basic
competencies in reading, writing, and computation. Less frequently discussed
by educators, but of equal importance, is the fact that schools serve other
less obvious societal functions, including ~ ~ ~ providing custodial care while
parents work or pursue personal interests; (2) delaying children's entrance
into the work force; (3) encouraging the development of social competencies;
and (4) sorting and selecting for the purpose of impeding or maintaining
established social roles, organizations, and institutions (Goodiad, 1973~.
Thus, the schooling process has a significant impact on the development of
children both academically and societally.
The effects of schooling on children may not be obvious in societies in
which the vast majority attend school. However, in countries in which
smaller proportions of the population attend school, the effects are striking
(Stevenson et al., 1978~. World Bank (1980) records indicate that 64 per-
cent of the children ages 6-~! in developing countries attended school in
1977, compared with 94 percent of the same-age children in developed
countries. Substantial differences in literacy and other cognitive skills appear'
283
OCR for page 284
284
DEVELOPMENT DURING MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
when persons who have attended at least elementary school are compared
with those who have not been exposed to formal education (Sharp et al.,
1979; Stevenson et al. 19781. In developing nations a major concern is
expanding access to formal education to reach a larger proportion of school-
age children.
In cross-national comparisons of science achievement, secondary-level
American students do not perform as well as students from Japan, Hungary,
Australia, New Zealand, and the Federal Republic of Germany. However,
data from the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational
Achievement (Walberg, 1981) indicate that American 10-year-olds are
achieving at approximately the average level for developed nations (although
still far behind Japan). There is some evidence that parental expectations
may account for the achievement advantages of Japanese students (Hess et
al., 1980~.
During these important middle childhood years, children are thought to
be functioning developmentally at what Piaget termed the concrete and
formal operational stages (see Fischer and Bullock, in this volume). During
this phase, basic literacy as well as computational and conceptual skills are
acquired. Children also develop relatively permanent attitudes about schools
and reaming, including study habits. A child's academic and social self-
concepts develop incrementally with age (Benham et al., 1980), and the
pressures of peer influence begin to emerge during the early school years
(Hartup, in this volume; Minuchin and Shapiro, 1983~.
Although varying in content and purpose across countries, the most uni-
versally recognized function of schools is to impart knowledge and skills that
will ertable the learner to participate successfully in the society's institutions.
At this level schools are concemed with the development of reading, writing,
speaking, and computational skills. In most instances teachers instruct chil-
dren in groups at a given age or grade level, using a specified set of instruc-
tional materials, and the academic outcomes of this overt function are
assigned highest priority.
With regard to socialization, schools by virtue of their structure also
facilitate normative outcomes (Dreeben, 1968; Jackson, 1968~. Dreeben
contends that schools provide children with the psychological capacities
needed for participation in societal institutions by fostering independence,
achievement, universalisms, and specificity. Bowles (1975) sees the school's
function as more allocative and argues that its main purpose is to perpetuate
society's economic and class structures. These themes recur throughout this
chapter.
Schooling occurs in the context of the society at large; therefore, its
academic and normative functions are not independent of other societal
OCR for page 285
-
SCHOOL AND CHILDREN
285
institutions. The interaction between the home or family and the school is
the most obvious example of social-system interaction, especially because
for children of this age much of the parents' monitoring and control functions
is taken over by the school during the main part of the day, and even before
and after school in some areas.
This chapter discusses the school environment, the cognitive and affective
effects of schooling, both manifest and latent, and schools and children in
the context of family influence (socioeconomic background, home back-
ground, and the like). Issues related to school desegregation and bilingualism
are also discussed. Wherever possible, we point out methodological weak'
nesses in the existing research and list issues for future investigation. We
do not cover the literature on teaching methods in any detail, although
instructional approaches that appear to be important conceptually and meth-
odologically (e.g., Barr and Dreeben, 1983; Bloom, 1976) are discussed.
And an issue of great current interest, mainstreaming of handicapped chil-
dren, is not discussed (see Heller et al., 1982, and Johnson et al., 1983~.
THE SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT
In this section we briefly discuss issues related to children's lives in the
context of the school, especially school climate and teacher expectations,
from a number of research perspectives.
Input,Output Analysis
The work of Coleman et al. (1966) and Jencks et al. (1972), which are
examples of input-output formulations, have generally been interpreted to
mean that differences in school environments are minimal at best and largely
ineffective in influencing outcomes. These conclusions are based primarily
on research with secondary school students. Other studies of the same genre
suggest that elementary schools do have differential effects on student out-
comes (Brookover et al., 1979; Edmonds, 1979; Entwisle and Hay~uk, 1982;
Murnane, 1975; Rutter, 1983; Rutter et al., 1979; Summers and Wolfe,
1977).
Alternative interpretations have been suggested. For example, Heyns (1978)
and McPartIand and Karweit (1979) suggested that the findings on school
environments can be interpreted to mean that school environments provide
similar educational experiences for all students and that schools are for the
most part equally effective in influencing most learning outcomes.
At any rate, school effects at the elementary level have been studied much
less than those at the secondary level, although the organization and lo
OCR for page 286
286
DEVELOPMENT DURING MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
l
cations of the two levels of schools differ in the extreme. In contrast to
secondary schools, in elementary schools children often remain in one cIass-
room with one teacher for most of the day. And in the United States,
elementary schools are most often neighborhood schools, a circumstance
that, for middle-cIass white students, leads to a high degree of concordance
between home and school environments perhaps potentiating effects of
both. For [ower-cIass and minority students, however, there is frequently a
lack of congruence between home and school environments (see the section
below on race and ethnicity).
Social-System Variables
From another perspective the school can be seen as a "cultural system of
social relationships among family, teachers, students and peers" (Anderson,
1982:382~. Studies with this focus examine how the various components in
the "cultural system" of school interact to influence both cognitive and
normative outcomes. Focal variables include ability grouping, classroom
organization, and teacher-student relationships.
The effect of ability grouping on achievement remains debatable. While
some studies report that no significant relationship exists, Brookover et al.
~1979), Almonds and Fredericksen ~1978), McDill and Rigsby ~1973), So-
rensen (1970), and Weber (1971) indicate that the more homogeneous the
group the higher the achievement.
Barr and Dreeben (1983) studied the ways teachers organized first-grade
classrooms for reading instruction. They found that the number of instruc-
tional groups and the size of the groups were determined by such charac-
teristics as class size and number of low-aptitude students in a classroom.
Barr and Dreeben also observed that teachers moved children from group
to group during the school year largely on the basis of how well they per-
formed. The primary dete~inant of an individual's group placement was
aptitude (reading readiness in this study). The average aptitude of the in-
structional group was a major determinant of how much material was covered
in reading texts and ultimately how much the children reamed.
Beckerman and Good ( 1981 ) found that the ratio of high- to low-aptitude
students in a classroom affected the achievement of both. High- and low-
aptitude third- and fourth-graders had greater achievement gains in cIass-
rooms in which more than one-third were high aptitude. Barr and Dreeben
(1983) contend, however, that the number of low-aptitude students in a
classroom is more important than the proportion. Studies by Ecler (1981),
Leiter (1983), and Rowan and Miracle (1983) also indicate that grouping
strategies and the distribution of abilities have profound effects on student
achievement. This topic deserves much more attention.
OCR for page 287
SCHOOL AND CHILDREN
287
The degree and type of teacher-student interaction and the extent to
which students interact in school activities and share in the decision-making
process are related to positive effects. Despite these findings, Goodiad ~ 1983)
noted that "above the primary level, students experience few classroom
activities that involve their own goal setting, problem solving, collaborative
reaming, autonomous thinking, creativity, and the like" (p. 305~. This
absence of student-initiated learning tasks may provide one explanation for
Harter's (1981) finding that children's mastery motivation declines from
grade 3 to grade 9.
Milieu Variables
Other research indicates that strong relationships, both positive and new
ative, apparently exist between the values and beliefs of various groups within
a school and its climate and between values and student outcomes. Teacher
commitment to and emphasis on students' academic achievement, rewards
and praise, clear goal definition, peer norms, and group cooperation influ-
ence both school climate and student outcomes (Brookover et al., 1979;
Edmonds, 1979; Rutter et al., 1979~. Teacher characteristics (McDill and
Rigsby, 1973; Rutter et al., 1979), teacher morale (Brookover and Lezotte,
1979; Ellett et al., 1977), student body characteristics (Brookover et al.,
1979; Rutter et al., 1979), and student morale (Edmonds, 1979) are likely
to act individually and in combination.
While research denies significant relationships between teacher charac'
teristics, such as teacher preparation or salary and student outcomes, positive
correlations have been noted between school climate as perceived by ele-
mentary children (Ellett et al., 1977) and student attendance and achieve-
ment at both the elementary and secondary levels. Likewise, Brookover et
al. ~ 1979) and Ecimonds ~ 1979) found positive relationships between student
morale and achievement and between student morale and academic self-
concept. Brookover et al. (1979) also reported that such student charac-
teristics as race and socioeconomic status account for a smaller proportion
of the variance in achievement than is accounted for by climate variables.
The Ecological Perspective
Ecological studies combine ecological elements from the input-output
economists with social-system, culture, and milieu variables. Effects of both
school (its physical characteristics) and schooling (the process) are at issue
in suc ~ investigations.
In general, studies investigating the effect of ecological variables on stu-
dent outcomes have produced low or inconsistent correlations. Rutter et al.
OCR for page 288
288
DEVELOPMENT DURING MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
(1979) reported a positive relationship between decoration and care of the
building and student achievement, but no relationship was found between
the age of the building and achievement.
Findings with respect to effects of class and school size are mixed. As
expected, small schools have been found to have better student behavior
(Anderson, 1982~. Although contrary to McDill and Rigsby (1973) and
Rutter et al. (1979), Anderson (1982) reported that neither class nor school
size affected reaming outcomes. This could be due to a lack of agreement
over the definitions of size terms (e.g., what constitutes small or large) and
inconsistencies in measurement. Glass and Smith (1978), from a statistical
research synthesis of a large number of studies, concluded that differences
in achievement are greatest in a range of class sizes between 10 and 20.
Glass et al. (1982) reviewed and critiqued the literature on class size and
provided recommendations for research and policy.
Other important considerations include investigating the possibility of
threshold effects for specific subgroups of students (e.g., those of lower
ability) and possible connections between class size and instructional meth-
ods. Rutter (1983) and Summers and Wolfe (1977) contend that it is likely
that less-able students will benefit from significant reductions (classes con-
sisting of fewer than 20 pupils) in class size. Further investigation into
effective ways of making such changes without detrimentally affecting av-
erage and above-average students is needed.
Teacher Behaviors and Expectations
Teacher behaviors and expectations, although not always systematically
included, can be classified under the ecological approach. Although this
research has a number of conceptual and methodological weaknesses, this
continues to be an important line of investigation. During the 1960s and
early 1970s, studies focusing on the influences of teacher behaviors and
expectations on children's academic achievement and self-concept began to
take shape. Studies such as those undertaken by Leacock ~ 1969), Rist ~ 1970),
and Rosenthal and Jacobson ~ 1968) suggested that teacher expectations can
strongly influence both the cognitive and the affective development of chil-
dren. On the basis of observing a single classroom of black children, Rist
noted that by the eighth day of kindergarten the teacher had assigned the
children to tables that reflected social-cIass groupings. These groupings per-
sisted into second grade, and throughout this period teachers tended to favor
the more advantaged children.
Much of the early expectancy research is thought to be flawed (see, for
example, Elashoff and Snow, 1971), and a number of later studies have
focused on whether teachers behave differently toward high- and low-achiev
OCR for page 289
-
SCHOOL AND CHILDREN
289
ing students (e.g., Brophy and Good, 1974). Although differential behavior
is often observed, its precise relationship to student achievement remains
unclear.
With a sample of 17,163 students representing 38 schools ranging in grade
levels from elementary through high school, Goodlad et al. (1979) found
that positive teacher behavior, such as praise, guidance, and encouragement,
were strongest in the elementary years. By the senior year of high school,
these encouraging behaviors declined as much as 50 percent in comparison
to the early elementary school years (Benham et al., 19801.
Entwisle and Hayduk (1982) examined teacher, student, and parent ex-
pectations in three elementary schools (one middle-class and two lower'
class schools). Their results raise many questions that should lead to further
research. For example, they found that initial expectations of lower-class
children were higher than those of middle-class children and that lower-
class parents as well had overoptimistic expectations for their children's
performance. There was a striking mismatch between lower-class parents'
and children's expectations and the children's performance as assessed by
teachers' marks. Furthermore, both parents and children in the middle-class
school were more likely to change their expectations on the basis of feedback
in the form of children's marks than were parents and children in the lower-
ciass schools. The authors noted that far too little attention has been paid
to what actually happens when marks are assigned. How do parents and
children react? What is the effect on subsequent expectations and behaviors?
Research on social climate and teacher behavior suffers from many prob-
lems, especially a failure to conceptualize variables in terms of testable theory.
Anderson ~ 1982) made a number of recommendations with which we concur:
more longitudinal research, improved statistical analysis, a focus on variables
that are causally relevant to outcomes, and consideration of multiple out'
comes and their interrelationships, since nonacademic outcomes may be
important in mediating the outcome of achievement. In general, a diversity
of research methods is called for. The use of in-depth observation, for
example, could compensate for the fragmentary evidence on school climate
typically yielded by surveys. Experimental methods, when feasible, are of
course optimal. As Rutter et al. (1979:180) noted, "The only way to be
sure that school practices actually influence children's behavior and attain-
ments is to alter those practices and then determine if this results in changes
in the children's progress."
EFFECTS OF SCHOOLING
Research on the effects of schooling has been approached from several
distinct perspectives that overlap those identified in the previous section on
OCR for page 290
290
DEVELOPMENT DURING MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
school environment. Because subtle differences in conceptualization are
important, a few of the predominant perspectives are mentioned for the sake
of clarity.
Research on school production focuses on the relationship between the
workings of schools and individual reaming (Barr and Dreeben, 1983~. More
specifically, an attempt is made to identify what in the organization of schools
leads to increments in individual reaming outcomes. Such analyses generally
reflect an economist's formulation of productivity. Formulations predicated
on this theoretical approach suffer several limitations, including disagree'
ment among researchers on whether the productive unit is the educational
organization or the individual and at what level in the organization pro-
duction takes place. Other conceptual weaknesses in this approach include
~ ~ ~ confusion over who or what the productive unit is; (2) failure to explain
details of the schooling process and, as a result, failure to show how various
parts of the school as an organization are integrated; (3) little if any inter
"ration of the processes that may occur at different levels (district, school,
classroom, or individual); and (4) perhaps most important, failure to take
into consideration characteristics of the reamer.
The study of individual status attainment represents a second approach
to research on the effects of schooling, very similar to school! production
studies but with some subtle differences (Barr and Dreeben, 19831. Research
in this tradition focuses on educational attainment as the penultimate, or
often ultimate, endogenous variable. Because researchers on social mobility
became involved in studies of educational attainment indirectly, only re-
cently has attention been given to students' earlier histories of attainment.
As noted in the section on input-output analysis earlier, there are serious
problems in trying to apply findings from this body of research to children
ages 6-12.
Research classified under the process-product heading is concemed with
instructional effectiveness. Studies are typically focused on identifying teach-
ing behaviors and activities that increase reaming outcomes. Brophy and
Evertson (1974), Dunkin and Biddle (1974), Gage (1972, 1978), and Ro-
senshine (1971) are major contributors to this approach. The process var-
iables include teaching behaviors, activities, and such characteristics as
teacher explanation, demonstration, maintaining order, housekeeping, plan-
ning, and years of experience as well as classroom and pupil contextual
variables. As mentioned, the findings from such studies are largely incon-
clusive or ungeneralizable. This is due to (1) the inclusion of an extensive
number and range of teacher behaviors; (2) little agreement on which teacher
behaviors are important; (3) failure to conceptualize adequately the instruc-
tional process and, therefore, how these variables operate to affect reaming;
OCR for page 291
SCHOOL AND CHILDREN
291
(4) the overly simplistic univariate analysis of the relationship between these
teaching variables and educational outcomes; and (5) failure to consider
children's characteristics and initiatory behavior in the process.
Recently researchers have attempted to deal with some of the inadequacies
of this research by developing more sophisticated conceptual formulations,
in which learning outcomes are purported to be influenced by intervening
student characteristics, environmental variables, and instructional time. In
his theory of educational productivity, Walberg ~ 1981 ~ specified the follow-
ing variables: student ability and motivation, home environment and age,
quality of instruction, quantity of instruction, and class environment. For-
mulations of this type are significant because they acknowledge that events
occur simultaneously within the classroom that might' influence learning
outcomes, thus permitting us to study the possible interactive and mediating
effects. The work of Bloom ~ 1976), Carroll ~ 1963), Fisher et al. ~ 1978),
and Wiley and Harnischfeger (1974) also bears on instructional time schemes
as a significant variable.
Although most research on the effects of schooling has been confined to
academic outcomes, some researchers have explored the influence of process
variables on self-esteem and locus of control (Marjoribanks, 1979; Weiss,
1969) or academic expectations for the self (Entwisle and Hay~uk, 1982~.
These efforts have tried to analyze and explain the development of self-
esteem and locus of control considered as both an antecedent and a con-
sequence of cognitive school outcomes.
Achievement
!
During middle childhood, children's ability to use images, symbols, con-
cepts, and rules increases, as does their vocabulary. Middle childhood covers
most of what Piaget termed the stage of concrete operations and the begin-
ning of the stage of formal operations. It is a period when the child is
expected to acquire a wide range of academic skills and to develop the ability
to solve increasingly complex problems. Fischer and Bullock (in this volume)
note that "competence is not a fixed characteristic of the child but an
emergent characteristic of the child in a specific context." It is evident that
the environment significantly affects cognitive development; however, there
is a paucity of information on how the environmental context interacts with
individual child characteristics to either facilitate or constrain development.
Fischer and Bullock recommend an investigation into the collaboration
between the child and the environment; we concur.
Children's preschool experiences in the home, nursery school, and play'
ground provide them, to some extent, with the cognitive and social skills
OCR for page 292
292
DEVELOPMENT DURING MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
required for success in school. Children from different social-cIass and ethnic
backgrounds typically differ in the degree to which their preschool experi-
ences prepare them for schoolwork. We discuss some of these differences in
greater detail later. Here we note that early school ability (e.g., reading
readiness), which is highly predictive of later school achievement, is strongly
related to family background characteristics. As Barr and Dreeben (1983)
noted, reading readiness determines reading group placement, and group
placement determines pace of instruction and, therefore, reading achieve-
ment. Reading achievement in first grade is highly predictive of reading
achievement in second grade (r = .84~.
For children in traditionally organized classrooms, achievement is re-
markably stable during the school years. This is partly attributable to the
high correlation between school achievement and general intelligence, which
is usually between .50 and .60 (Lavin, 1965~. Cognitive competencies as-
sessed by intelligence tests overlap with the competencies measured by
achievement tests. Bloom (1976) estimated that about 75 percent of sub-
sequent achievement is accounted for by general intelligence. Achievement
measures are usually highly correlated with one another. For example, read-
ing comprehension correlates about .70 with tests of language skills and
literature. Within domains, test scores are even more highly correlated (e.g.,
.80 for prior and subsequent tests of the same type). In summarizing results
of longitudinal studies, Bloom reported that measures of achievement after
grade 3 yield a median correlation with achievement at grade 12 of .70.
Maruyama et al. (1981) reported correlations of .75 to .79 for verbal achieve-
ment between ages 12 and 15 and of .67 to .72 for verbal achievement
between ages 9 and 12. In traditional instruction the best predictor of
achievement at the end of the school year is achievement at the beginning
of the year. A typical correlation is .80.
Bloom (1976) reported that studies using high-quality instruction (tutor-
ing, mastery reaming) have been able to substantially reduce the correlation
between prior and later achievement in specific subjects. Anania (1981)
reported a correlation of only .11 between prior achievement and final
achievement in a course under tutorial conditions of instruction. More
typical are the results reported by Froeme! (1980~. For students undergoing
conventional instruction, the correlation between general intelligence and
later achievement in a course was .45. For students in a mastery learning
class, the correlation between measures of intelligence and measures of
achievement at the beginning of the study was .46; after 3 months the
correlation fell to .21; and after 6 months it was .11. Similar, though not
always as dramatic, patterns of results have been consistent in studies of
students from elementary grades through college (Bloom, 19761.
OCR for page 293
SCHOOL AND CHILDREN
293
The stability described above is based on the persisting effects of individual
differences on achievement. Rutter (1983) contended that individual dif-
ferences in academic achievement cannot be reduced without impairing the
most advantaged pupils but did not provide any empirical support for this
assertion. Bloom (1976), however, cited the results of research indicating
that by using mastery reaming techniques the achievement levels of the
slowest pupils can be improved without impairing the progress of the more
able students.
The stability between earlier and later achievement is not inevitable but
is a pattern that, according to Bloom, is associated with schooling as it is
traditionally organized. While Bloom and his associates have focused on
tutoring and mastery learning, perhaps other organized instructional ap-
proaches could also reduce this stability substantially, especially computer-
assisted or other individualized modes of instruction. Subsequent research
in this area is warranted.
School-Related Affect
There has been a proliferation of research on general self-esteem and
academic self-concept during the past two decades. Yet numerous meth-
odological and conceptual problems continue to perplex researchers (see
reviews by Wylie, 1974, 1979~. There is little agreement on the meaning
of the terms self-esteem and self-concept, and there is a paucity of knowledge
about how a child's self-image changes during the middle childhood years
(Markus and Nurius, in this volume). There is also a need to understand
the dimensions or domains of self-concept (e.g., physical self, academic self,
social self). Finally, the tendency to rely almost exclusively on self-report
measures of self~evaluation is a major weakness of research in this area.
Self-esteem and academic self-concept are both positively correlated with
academic achievement (Dolan, 1978; Hare, 1980; Maruyama et al., 1981;
Purkey, 1970~. However, there is little direct evidence that either self-esteem
or academic self-concept has a direct causal influence on achievement. After
reviewing research on primary-grade children and older students, Scheirer
and Kraut (1979) concluded that the evidence does not support the view
that positive changes in self-concept result in improved achievement. Rather,
it is more likely that positive change in academic self-concept is an outcome
of improved achievement (e.g., Kifer, 1975~. Entwisle and Hay~uk (1982),
however, found this relationship to be reversed in the first grade, i.e., before
children have much experience in school.
Eclucational and psychological researchers have shown considerable in-
terest in the relationship of locus of control to achievement. For example,
OCR for page 324
324
DEVELOPMENT DURING MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
Brookover, W.B., Patterson, A., and Thomas, S.
1962 Self-Concept of Ability and School Achievement. U.S. Office of Education, Cooperative
Research Project No. 845. East Lansing: Office of Research and Publications, Michigan
State University.
Brookover, W., Beady, C., Flood, P., Schweitzer, J., and Wisenbaker, J.
1979 School Social Systems and Student Achievement: Schools Can Make a Difference. New York:
Praeger.
Brophy, J.
1970 Mothers as teachers of their own preschool children: The influence of socioeconomic
status and task structure on teaching specificity. Child Development 41:79-94.
Brophy, J.E., and Evertson, C.M.
1974 Process Product Correlations in the Texas Teacher Effectiveness Study. Report No. 74-4.
Austin: University of Texas Research and Development Center for Teacher Education.
Brophy, J., and Good, T.
1974 TeacheT-Student Relationships: Causes and Consequences. New York: Holt, Rinehart &
Winston.
Burstein, L.
1980 The analysis of multilevel data in educational research and evaluation. In D.C. Berliner,
ea., Review of Research in Education. Vol. 8. Washington, D.C.: American Educational
Research Association.
Buriel, R.
1981 Relation of Anglo- and Mexican-American children's locus of control beliefs to parents'
and teachers' socialization practicies. Child Development 52:104-113.
Busk, P., Ford, R., and Schulman, J.
1973 Effects of schools' racial composition on the self-concept of black and white students.
Journal of Educational Research 67:57-63.
Carew, J.
1980 Experience and the development of intelligence in young children at home and in day
care. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 45(6-7, Serial no. 187).
Carroll, J.G.
1963 A model of school learning. Teachers College Record 64:723-733.
Cicirel~ V.
1977 Relationship of socioeconomic status and ethnicity to primary grade children's self-
concept. Psychology in the Schools 14:213-215.
Clark, K.
1965 Dark Ghetto. New York: Harper & Row.
Clark, R.
1982 The Quality of Family Pedagogic Life: What Is That? Unpublished paper presented at
the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York.
Clarke-Stewart, K.A.
1973 Interactions between mothers and their young children: Characteristics and conse
quences. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Developrrient 38(6-7, Serial no.
153).
Cohen, E.
1975 The effects of desegregation on race relations. Law and Contemporary Problems 39:271
299.
1980 Design and redesign of the desegregated school: Problems of status, power, and conflict.
In W. Seephan and I. Fegin, eds., School Desegreganon: Past, Present and Future. New
York: Plenum Press.
Cohen, E., and De Avila, E.
1983 Indirect Instruction and Conceptual Leaming. Unpublished paper, Stanford University.
OCR for page 325
SCHOOL AND CHILDREN
325
Coleman, ].S., Campbell, E.Q., Mabson, C.]., McPartland, ]., Mood, A., Weinfeld, F.D., and
York, R.L.
1966 Equality of Educational Opportunity. 2 vols. Washington, D.C.: Office of Education, U.S.
Department of Health, Education and Welfare.
Comer, dames P.
1980 School Power. New York: Free Press.
C`~nnell, ].P.
1980 A Multidimensional Measure of Children's Perceptions of Control. Unpublished master's
thesis, University of Denver.
Cc~opersmith, S.
1967 The Antecedents of Self-Esteem. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman.
Cc~rnc', L., Mitman, A., and Hedges, L.
1981 The influence of direct instruction on student self-appraisals: A hierarchical analysis of
treatment and aptitude-treatment interaction effects. American Educational ResearchJour-
na1 18:39-61.
Cc~ulson, ]., Hanes, S., Ozene, D., Bradford, C., Doherty, W., Duck, G., and Hemenway, ].
1977 The Third Year of Emergency School Aid Act (ESAA) Implementation. Santa Monica, Calif.:
System Development Corp.
Crain, R., and Mahard, R.
1982 Desegregation Plans That Raise Black Achievement: A Review of the Research. Santa Monica,
Calif.: Rand Corp.
1983 The effect of research methodology on desegregation-achievement studies: A meta-
analysis. American Journal of Sociology 88:839-854.
Crain, R., Mahard, R., and Narot, R.
1981 Making Desegregation Work: How Schools Create Social Climates. Cambridge, Mass.: Bal-
linger.
Cronbach, L., and Snow, R.
1977 Aptitude and Instructional Methods. New York: Irving Productions.
Cummins, ].
1979 Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children. Re-
view of Educational Research 49:222-251.
Dave, R. ;
1963 The Identification and Measurement of Environmental Process Variables That Are Re-
lated to Educational Achievement. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of
Chicago.
DeBord, L., Griffin, L., and Clark, M.
1977 Race and sex influence in the schooling process of rural and small town youth. Sociology
of Education 50:85-102.
Diaz, R.
1983 Thought and two languages: The impact of bilingualism on cognitive growth. In E.
Gordon, ea., Review of Research in Education. Vol. 10. Washington, D.C.: American
Educational Research Association.
Dolan, L.
1978 The affective consequences of home support, instructional quality, and achievement.
Urban Education 13:323-344.
Dreeben, R.
1968 On What Is Leamed in School. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.
Dunkin, M.J., and Biddle, B.].
1974 The Study of Teaching. New York: Hole, Rinehart & Winston.
Dweck, C., Davidson, W., Nelson, S., and Enna, B.
1978 Sex differences in reamed helplessness: II. The contingencies of evaluative feedback in
the classroom. III. An experimental analysis. Developmental Psychology 14:268-276.
OCR for page 326
326 DEVELOPMENT DURING MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
Dyer, P.
1967 Home Environment and Achievement in Trinidad. Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
University of Alberta.
Eder, D.
1981 Ability grouping as a self-fulfilling prophecy: A micro-analysis of teacher-student inter-
action. Sociology of Education 54:151-161.
Edmonds, R.
1979 Some schools work and more can. Social Policy (March/April):28-32.
Edmonds, R.R., and Fredericksen, J.R.
1978 Search for Effective Schools: The Identification and Analysis of City Schools That Are Instruc-
tion~lly Effective for Poor Children. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University, Center for
Urban Studies.
Elashoff, ]., and Snow, R.
1971 Py~nakon Reconsidered. Worthington, Ohio: Jones.
Ellett, C.D., Payne, D.A., Master, }.A., and Pool, ].E.
1977 The Relationship Between Teacher and Student Assessments of School Environment
Characteristics and School Outcome Variables. Paper presented at the twenty-third
annual meeting of the Southeastem Psychological Association, Hollywood, Fla., May.
Entwisle, D.R., and Hayduk, L.A.
1978 Too Great Expectations: The Academic Outlook of Young Children. Baltimore, Md.: Johns
Hopkins University Press.
1982 Early Schooling Cognitive and Affective Outcomes. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins Uni
versity Press.
Epps, E.
1969 Correlates of academic achievement among northern and southern urban Negro students.
]OUTTIa1 of Social Issues 25(3):55-70.
1975 Impact of school desgregation on aspirations, self-concept, and other aspects of person-
ality. Law and Contemporary Problems 39:300-313.
The impact of school desegregation on the self-evaluation and achievement orientation
of minority children. Law and Contemporary Problems 42:57-76.
Minority children: Desegregation, self evaluation, and achievement motivation. In W.
Hawley, ea., Effective School Desegregation: Equity, Quality, and Feasibility. Beverly Hills,
Calif.: Sage.
Epstein, ].
1983 Longitudinal effects of family-school person interactions on student outcomes. In A.
Kerckhoff, ea., Research in Sociology of Education and Socialization. Vol. 4. Greenwich,
Conn.: JAI Press.
Epstein, J., and Becker, H.].
1982 Teachers' reported practices of parent involvement: Problems and possibilities. Elementary
School Journal 83: 103- 113.
Femandez, R., and Guskin, J.
1981 Hispanic students and school desegregation. In W. Hawley, ea., Effective School Deseg
regation: Equity, Quality, and Feasibility. Beverly Hills, Calif.:Sage.
Findley, M., and Cooper, H.
1983 Locus of control and academic achievement: A literature review. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology 44:419-427.
Fisher, C.W., Filby, N.N., Maliave, R., Cohen, L.S., Dishaw, M.M., Moore, J.E., and Berliner,
D.C.
1918 Teaching Behaviors, Academic Leaming Time and Student Achievement. Final report
of Phase III-B, Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study. Far West Laboratory for Educational
Research and Development, San Francisco.
1978
1981
J I
OCR for page 327
SCHOOL AND CHILDREN
327
Forehand, G., Ragosta, M., and Rock, D.
1916 Corrections and Processes of Effective School Desegregation. Princeton, Ad.: Educational
_ . ~
1 estlng Service.
Froemel, I.
1980 Cognitive Entry Behaviors, Instructional Conditions, and Achievement: A Study of
Their Interrelationships. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago.
Fuerst, ].
1977 Child parent centers: An evaluation. Integrated Education (May-]une):17-20.
Gage, N.L.
1972 Teacher Effectiveness and Teacher Education. Palo Alto, Calif.: Pacific.
1978 The Scientific Basis of the Art of Teaching. New York: Teachers College Press.
Gallimore, R., and Au, K.
1979 The compeeence/incompeeence paradox in the education of minority culture children.
The Quarterly Newsletter of the laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition 1(3):32-37.
Gaudry, E., and Spielberger, C., eds.
1971 Anxiety and School Achievement. Sydney, Australia: John Wiley & Sons.
Gerard H., and Miller, N.
1975 School Desegregation. New York: Plenum Press
Gerard, H., Jackson, T., and Conolley, E.
1975 Social contact in the desegregated classroom. In H. Gerard and N. Miller, eds., School
Desegregation. New York: Plenum Press.
Giaconia, R.M. and Hedges, L.V.
1982 Identifying features of effective open education. Review of Educational Research 52:579-
602.
Glass, G.V.
1978 Integrating findings: The meta-analysis of research. In L.S. Shulman, ea., Review of
Research in Education. Vol. 5. Itasca, Ill.: Peacock.
Glass, G.V., and Smith, M.
1978 Meta-Analysis of Research on the Relationship of Class Size and Achievement. San Francisco:
Far West Laboratory for Educational Research and Development.
Glass, G., Cohen, E., and Smith, M.
1982 School Class Size: Research and Policy. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage.
Good, T.L.
1983 Classroom research: A decade of progress. Educational Psychologist 18:127-144.
Goodchilds, J., Green, I., and Biksen, T.
1975 The school experience and adjustment. In H. Gerard and N. Miller, eds., School De-
segregation. New York: Plenum Press.
Goodlad, J.I.
1973 The elementary school as a social institution. In J. Goodlad and H. Shane, eds., The
Elementary School in the United States. Seventy-second Yearbook of the National Society
for the Study of Education, Part II. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
1983 Individuality, commonality, end curricular practice. In G. Fenstermacher and]. Goodlad,
eds., Individual Differences and the Common Curriculum. Eighty-second Yearbook of the
National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Goodlad, J.I., Sirotnik, K.S., and Overman, B.C.
1979 An overview of a study of schooling. Phi Delta Kappa 61:174-178.
Grant, L.
1981 Race, Sex, and Schooling: Social Location and Children's Experiences in Desegregated
Classrooms. Unpublished dissertation, University of Michigan.
OCR for page 328
328
DEVELOPMENT DURING MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
Green, D., Miller, N.s and Gerard, D.
1975 Personality traits and adjustment. In H. Gerard and N. Miller, eds., School Desegregation.
New York: Plenum Press.
Hare, B.
1977 Racial and socioeconomic variation in preadolescent area-specific and general self-esteem.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations 1 :31 -51.
1980 Self-perception and academic achievement: Variations in a desegregated setting. Amer-
ican ]OUTnal of Psychiatry 137:683-689.
In
Harter, S.
1978 Effectance motivation reconsidered: Toward a developmental model. Human Development
1 :34-64.
1981 A new self-report scale of intrinsic versus extrinsic orientation in the classroom: Moti
vational and informational components. Developmental Psychology 17:300-312.
1982 The perceived competence scale for children. Child Development 53:87-97.
Harter, S., and Connell, J.P.
A model of the relationship among children's academic achievement and their self
press perceptions of competence, control, and motivational orientation. In ]. Nicholls, ea.,
The Development of Achievement Motivation. Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press.
Hedges, L.V.
1981 Appendix note: Illustrating two-aptitude treatment interactions: A methodological note.
American Educational Research JOUTr~1 18:57-61.
1982 Estimating effect size from a series of independent experiments. Psychological Bulletin
92:490-499.
Hedges, L.V., Giaconia, R.M., and Gage, N.L.
1981 Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Open and Traditional Instruction. Stanford University
Program on Teaching Effectiveness Meta Analysis Project, Final Report, Vol. 2.
Heller, K., Holtzman, W., and Messick, S., eds.
1982 Placing Children in Special Education: A Strategy for Equity. Panel on Selection and Place-
ment of Students in Programs for the Mentally Retarded, Committee on Child Devel-
opment Research and Public Policy. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
Hess, R.
1910 ~ Social class and ethnic influences on socialization. In P. Mussen, ea., Carmichael's Manual
of Cluld Psychology. Vol. 2. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Hess, R., and Shipman, V.
1965 Early experience and the socialization of cognitive modes in children. Child Development
36:869-886.
1967 Cognitive elements in maternal behavior. In ]. Hill, ea., Minnesota Symposia on Cluld
Psychology. Vol. 1. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota.
Hess, R., Holloway, S., Price, G., and Dickson, W.
1980 Family environments and the acquisition of reading skills. In L. Laosa and I. Sigel, eds.,
Families as Learning Environments for Children. New York: Plenum Press.
Hewison, ]., and Tizard, J.
1980 Parental involvement and reading attainment. The British Journal of Educational Psychology
50:209-215.
Heyneman, S.
1976 A brief note on the relationship between socioeconomic status and test performance
among Ugandan primary school children. Comparative Education Review 20:42-47.
Heyns, B.
1978 summer Learning and the Effects of Schooling. New York: Academic.
Holliday, B.G.
1984 Towards a structural model of teacher-child transactional processes affecting black chil-
dren's academic achievement. In M. Spencer, G. Brookings, and W. Allen, eds., Be
OCR for page 329
SCHOOL AND CHILDREN
329
"innings: The Social and Affective Development of Black Children. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence
Erlbaum.
Hunt, 1., and Hunt, L.
1977 Racial inequality and self-image: Identity maintenance as identity diffusion. Sociology
and Social Research 61:539-559.
Inkeles, A.
1968 Social structure and the socialization of competence. In Socialization and Schools. Reprint
Series No. 1, Harvard Educational Review.
Jackson, P.W.
1968 Life in Classrooms. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Janicki, T., and Peterson, P.
1981 Aptitude-treatment interaction effects of variations in direct instruction. American Ed-
ucationa1 Research Journal 18:63-82.
Jencks, C., Smith, M., Acland, H., Bane, M., Cohen, D., Gintis, H., Heyns, B., and Michel-
son, S.
1972 Inequality: A Reassessment of the Effect of Family and Schooling in America. New York:
Basic Books.
Johnson, D.W., and Johnson, R.T.
1919 Cooperation, competition, and individualization. In H.J. Walberg, ea., Educational En-
vironments and Effects. Berkeley, Calif.: McCutchan.
Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., and Maruyama, G.
1983 Interdependence and interpersonal attraction among heterogeneous and homogeneous
individuals: A theoretical formulation and a meta~analysis of the research. Review of
Educational Research 53:5-54.
Kellaghan, T.
1977 Relationships between home environment and scholastic behavior in a disadvantaged
population. Journal of Educational Psychology 69:754-760.
Kifer, E.
1975 Relationship between academic achievement and personality characteristics: A quasi-
longitudinal study. American Educational Research Journal 12: 191-220.
Kohn, M.
1969 Class and Conformity: A Study in Values. Second ed. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Krol, D.F.
1978 A Meta-Analysis of School Desegregation and Achievement. Unpublished doctoral dis-
sertation, Westem Michigan University.
Laosa, L.
1977
Socialization, education, and continuity: The importance of the socioculture context.
Young Children 32:21-27.
1982 School, occupation, culture and family: The impact of parental schooling on the parent
child relationship. Journal of Education Psychology 74:791-827.
Lavin, D.E.
1965 The Prediction of Acerbic Perfonnance: A Theorems Analysis and Review of Research.
New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Lazar, I., and Darlington, R.
1982 Lasting effects of early education: A report from the consortium for longitudinal studies.
Monographs for Research in Child Development 47 (2-3, Serial no. 195.)
Leacock, E.
1969 Teaching and Leaming in City Schools. New York: Basic Books.
1982 The influence of teacher attitudes on children's performance: Case studies. In K. Borman,
ea., The Social Life of Children in a Changing Sociery. Hillsdale, N.~.: Lawrence Erlbaum.
OCR for page 330
330
Leiter, ].
1983 Classroom composition and achievement gains. Sociology of Education 56:126-132.
Lesser, G., Fifer, G., and Clark, D.
1967 Mental abilities of children in different social and cultural groups. In ]. Roberts, ea.,
School Children in the Urban Slum. New York: Free Press.
Levine, D., Lachowicz, H., Oxman, K., and Tangeman, A.
1972 The home environment of students in a high achieving inner city parochial school and
a nearby public school. Sociology of Education 45:435-445.
Lightfoor, S.
1979 Families and schools. In H. Walberg, ea., Educational Environment and Effects. Berkeley,
Calif.: McCutchan.
Lucker, G., Rosenfeld, D., Sikes, J., and Aaronson, E.
1976 Performance in the interdependent classroom: A field study. American Educational Re-
search Journal 68:588-596.
Macnamara, ]., Svarc, J., and Homer, S.
1976 Attending a primary school of the other language in Montreal. In A. Simoes, Jr., ea.,
The Bilingual Child. New York: Academic Press.
Marjoribanks, K.
1979 Family environments. In H. Walberg, ea., Educational Environments and Effects. Berkeley,
Calif.: McCutchan.
Marshall, H.H.
1981 Open classrooms: Has the term outlived its usefulness? Review of Educational Research
51:182-192.
Marnyama, G., Rubin, R., and Kingsbury, G.
1981 Self-esteem and educational achievement: Independent constructs with a common cause.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 40:962-975.
Massey, G., Scott, M., and Dornbusch, S.
1975 Racism without racists: Institutional racism in urban schools. The Block Scholar 7:2-11.
McAdoo, H.P.
1977 The development of self-concept and race attitudes in black children: A longitudinal
study. In Report of the Third Conference on Empirical Research in Black Psychology. Wash-
t ington, D.C.: National Institute of Education.
McConahay, I.
1978 The effects of school desegregation upon students' racial attitudes and behavior: A
critical review of the literature and a prolegomenon to future research. Law and Con-
rempora7y Problems 42:77-107.
McDill, E.L., and Rigsby, L.C.
1973 Structure and Process in Secondary Schools: The Acad~nic Impact of Educational Climates.
Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press.
McPartland, ].M., and Karweit, N.
1979 Research on educational effects. In Hal. Walberg, ea., Educational Environments and
Effects. Berkeley, Calif.: McCutchan.
Meece, ].L., Parsons, J.E., Kaczala, C.M., Golf, S.B., and Futterman, R.
1982 Sex differences in math achievement: Toward a model of academic choice. Psychological
Bulletin 91 :324-348.
Mercer, J., Coleman, M., and Harloe, ].
1974 Racial/ethnic segregation and desegregation in American public education. In C. Gor-
don, ea., Uses of the Sociology of Education. 73rd Yearbook of the National Society for
the Study of Education, Part II. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Mercy, J.A., and Steelman, L.C.
1982 Familial influence on the intellectual attainment of children. American Sociological Review
47:532-542.
DEVELOPMENT DURING MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
OCR for page 331
SCHOOL AND CHILDREN
331
Miller, A.
1982 Changes in Self-Eseeem in Early School Years: Cognitive Development or Declining
Self-Affect. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research
Association, New York, March.
Minuchin, P.P., and Shapiro, E.K.
1983 The school as a context for social development. In P.H. Mussen, ea., Handbook of Child
Psychology. Fourth ed. E.M. Hetherington, ea., Social Development, Vol. 3. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.
Moore, E.G.
1981 Ethnicity as a Variable in Child Development. Unpublished paper, Arizona State Uni-
versity.
Murnane, R.J.
1975 The Impact of School Resources on the Learning of Inner City Children. Cambridge: Ballinger.
Oghu, J.U.
1978 Minority Education and Caste: The American School System in Crc~ss-Cultural Perspective.
New York: Academic Press.
1981 Origins calf human competence: A cultural~ecological perspective. Child Devek~pment 52:413
429.
1983 Crossing Cultural Boundaries: A Comparative Perspective on Minority Education. Un-
published paper f`,r a Symposium fin Race, Class, Socialization, and the Life Cycle,
University calf Chicago, October 21-22.
O'Malley, ].M.
1982 Instructional services f`'r limited English proficient children. NABE ]ot~rnal 7:21-35.
I3atchen, M.
1982 Black-White Contact in Schools: Its Social and Academic Effects. West Lafayette, Ind.:
Purdue University Press.
Peal, E., and Lambert, W.
1962 The relation `,f bilingualism to intelligence. Psychological Monographs 76(546):1-23.
Turkey, W.
1970 Self-C`'ncept and School Achievement. Englew<~od Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
Ramirez, M., and Price-Williams, D.
1976 Achievement m`~tivati`'n in children `,f three ethnic groups in the Llpited States. Journal
`'f Cr`'ss-CultuTal Psychology 7:49-60.
Rist, R.C.
1970 Student special class and teacher expectations: The self-fulfilling prophecy in ghetto
education. Harvard Educational Review 40:411-451.
1973 The Urban School: A Factory f<'r Failure. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
R`,senshine, B.V.
1971 Teaching Behaviors and Student Achievement. L`'nd<,n: National Foundation f`,r Educational
Research in England and Wales.
The master teacher and the master developer. In M. Wang and H. Walberg, eds.,
Adapting Instructicm to Student Differences: A Synthesis of Theory, Research and Practice.
Berkeley, Calif.: McCutchan.
Rosenthal, R., and ]ac<,hs<,n, L.
1968 Pygmalion in the Classroom. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Runway, B., and Miracle, A.W., ]r.
1983 Systems `,f ability grouping and the stratification elf achievement in elementary schools.
S<,ciol`'gy elf Education 56(]uly): 133- 144.
Ruhland, D., and Feld, S.
1977 The development `,f achievement m`~tivatic~n in black and white children. Child Devel-
`'pment 48: 1362- 1368.
In
press
OCR for page 332
332
DEVELOPMENT DURING MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
Rutter, M.
1983 School effects on pupil progress: Research findings and policy implications. CIuld De-
velopment 54:1-29.
Rutter, M., Maughn, B., Mortimore, P., Ouston, J., and Smith, A.
1979 Fifteen-Thousand HOSTS: Secondary Schools and Their Effects on Children. Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press.
Sandoval-Martinez, S.
1982 Findings from the Head Start bilingual curriculum development effort. NABE journal
7:1-12.
Sarason, S., Lighthall, F., Waite, R., and Ruebush, B.
1960 Anxiety in Elementary School Children. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Scheirer, M., and Kraut, R.
1979 Increasing educational achievement via self-concept change. Review of Educational Re-
search 49:131- 150.
Schofield, J.
1979 The impact of positively structured contact on intergroup behavior: Does it last under
adverse conditions7 Social Psychology Quarterly 42:280-284.
Schofield, J., and McGivern, E.
1978 Who Likes Desegregated Schools? The Effect of Sex and Race on Students' Attitudes.
Paper presented at the meeting of the American Educational Research Association,
Toronto, March.
Schofield, J., and Sager, A.
1979 The social context of learning in an interracial school. In R. Rist, ea., Desegregated
Schools: Appraisals of an American Experiment. New York: Academic Press.
Scott, R., and McPartland, J.
1982 Desegregation as national policy: Correlates of racial attitudes. American Educational
Research Journal 19:397-414.
Shade, B.
1982 Afro-American cognitive style: A variable in school success. Review of Educational Re-
search 52:219-244.
Sharp, D., Gale, M., and Lave, C.
1979 Education and cognitive development: The evidence from experimental research. Mon'
ographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 44(1-2, Serial no. 178).
Shipman, V., Boroson, M., Bridgemen, B., Cant, J., and Mikovsky, M.
1976 Disadvantaged Children and Their First School Experiences: Notable Early Characteristics of
High and Low Achieving Black Low-SES Children. (PR-76-21 ) Princeton, N.].: Educational
Testing Service (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 138-340).
Simpson, A., and Erickson, M.
1983 Teachers' verbal and nonverbal communication patterns as a function of teacher race,
student gender, and student race. American Education Research Joumal 20:183-198.
Singer, H., Gerard, H., and Redfern, D.
1975 Achievement. In H. Gerard and N. Miller, eds., School Desegregation. New York: Plenum
Press.
Slaughter, D.
1969 Matemal antecedents of the academic achievement behaviors of Afro-American Head
Stare children. Educational Horizons tFall):24-28.
1977 Relation of early parent~teacher socialization influences to achievement orientation and
self-esteem in middle childhood among low-income black children. In J. Glidewell, ea.,
The Social Context of Leaming and Development. New York: Gardner.
1981 Social policy issues affecting infants. In B. Weissbourd and J. Musich, eds., Infants: Their
Social Environments. Washington, D.C.: National Association for the Education of Young
Children.
OCR for page 333
SCHOOL AND CHILDREN
333
1983 Education and family. In B. Bloom and C. Mathis, eds., The Schools, Schools of
Education and Major Changes Affecting Education: The Crises of Our Time. Unpub-
lished manuscript.
Slavin, R.E., and DeVries, D.L.
1979 Learning in teams. In H.]. Walberg, ea., Educational Environments and Effects. Berkeley,
Calif.: McCutchan.
Slavin, R., and Madden, N.
1979 School practices that improve race relations. American Educational Research Journal 16:169-
180.
Snow, C.E.
1983 Literacy and language: Relationships during the preschool years. Harvard Educational
Review 53: 165- 189.
Sorensen, A.B.
1970 Organizational differentiation of students and educational opportunity. Sociology of ED
Cation 43:355-376.
Spencer, M.B.
1976 The Social-Cognitive and Personality Development of the Black Pre school Child: An
Exploratory Study of Developmental Process. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Uni-
versity of Chicago.
1982 Personal and group identity of black children: An alternative hypothesis. Genetic Psy-
chology Monographs 106:59-84.
St. John, N.H.
1975 School Desegregation: Outcomes for Children. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
St. John, N., and Lewis, R.
1975 Race and the social structure of the elementary classroom. Sociology of Education 48:346-
368.
Stallings, ].
1975 Implementation and child effects of teaching practices in Follow Through classrooms,
with commentary by M. Almy, L. B. Resnick. and G. Leinhardt. Monographs of the Society
for Research in Child Development 43( 165).
Stephen, W.
1978 School desegregation: An evaluation of predictions made in Brown v..' Board of Education.
Psychological Bulletin 85:217-237.
Stevenson, H.W., Parker, T., Wilkinson, A., Bonneveux, B., and Gonzalez, M.
1978 Schooling, environment, and cognitive development: A cross cultural study. Monographs
of the Society for Research in Child De`~el<,pment 43(3, Serial no. 175).
Stipek, D.~., and Weisz, J.R.
1981 Perceived personal control and academic achievement. Review of Research in Education
51:101-137.
Stodolsky, S.
1965 Maternal Behavior and Language and Concept Formation in Negro Pre-school Children:
An Inquiry Into Process. Doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago.
Stodolsky, S., and Lesser, G.
1967 Learning patterns in the disadvantaged. Harvard Educational Review 37:546-593.
Strodtbeck, F.
1958 Family interaction, values and achievement. In D. McClelland et al., eds., Talent and
Society. New York: Van Nostrand.
Summers, A.A., and Wolfe, B.L.
1977 Do schools make a difference? American Economic Review 67:639-652.
OCR for page 334
334
DEVELOPMENT DURING MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
Swain, M.
1978 French immersion: Early, late or partial' The Canadian Modem Language Review 34:557-
585.
Tharp, R., and Gallimore, R.
1982 Inquiry process in program development. Journal of Community Psychology 10:103-118.
Tizard, I., Schofield, W.N., and Hewison, J.
1982 Collaboration between teachers and parents assisting children's reading. British Journal
of Educational Psychology 52:1-15.
Tulkin, S.
1972 An analysis of the concept of cultural deprivation. Developmental Psychology 6(2):326-
339.
Walberg, H.J.
1981 A psychological theory of educational productivity. In F. Parley and N. Gordon, eds.,
Psychology and Education: The State of the Union. Berkeley, Calif.: McCutchan.
Walden, T., and Ramey, C.
1983 Locus of control and academic achievement: Results from a preschool intervention
program. Journal of Educational Psychology 75:347-358.
Weber, G.
1971 Inrush City Children Can Be Taught to Read: FOUT Successful Schools. Occasional paper 18.
Washington, D.C.: Council for Basic Education.
Weinberg, M.
1977 Minority Students: A Research Appraisal. Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Edu-
cation.
Weiss, J.
1969 The Identification and Measure of Home Environmental Factors Related to Achievement
Motivation and Self-Esteem. Unpublished dissertation, University of Chicago.
White, K.R.
1982 The relation between socioeconomic status and academic achievement. Psychological
Bulletin 91:461-481.
Wiley, D.E., and Harnischieger, A.
1974 Explosion of a myth: Quality of schooling and exposure to instruction, major educational
,' vehicles. Educational Researcher 3:7-12.
World Bank
1980 Education Sector Policy Paper. Third ed. W.D. Haddad, A. Liable, and M. Hulein.
Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
Wylie, R.
1974 The Self-Concep`. Rev. ed. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
1979 The Self-Concepr: Theory and Research on Selected Topics. Vol. 2. Lincoln: University of
Nebraska Press.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
academic achievement
