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CLARENCE HENRY GRAHAM
January 6, 1906-July 25, 197
BY LORRIN A. RIGGS
CLARENCE H. GRAHAM was an experimental psychologist whose
principal contributions to science lie in the areas of vision
and visual perception. Psychophysical and electrophysiological
experiments on retinal interaction effects occupied his attention
in the 1930's at Clark University. In the 1940's at Brown Uni-
versity he explored animal and human vision by a variety of
behavioral techniques and made significant contributions to
military problems of visual surveillance and selection of per-
sonnel during the Second World War. The remainder of his
career, at Columbia University, was devoted mainly to studies
of form, depth and motion perception, and the discrimination
of color.
Before giving a more detailed account of Graham's life and
accomplishments, let me attempt the difficult task of picturing
him as an individual. It was in the early days at Clark and at
Brown that I knew him best. I can see him now, hands locked
behind his head, feet crossed aloft at the right-hand corner of
nits Desk, analyzing the report Just hanuecl him by one of his
students. "Absurd," he would murmur, but his eyes would be
twinkling, and, as likely as not, "poor damned bastard," would
be the next remark. Then he would take up a red pencil and
cross out large sections of the manuscript, rewriting and re-
~ . ~ ~ ~ . ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~
71
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BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
rewriting it until it assumed an almost totally new, but im-
measurably better-organized form.
With an interest that was wide-ranging and keen, Clarence
Graham delighted in observing humanity's foibles, but never
without a hint of warm compassion. Each of the men and
women, seventy in all, who wrote a doctoral dissertation under
his direction can testify to his abhorrence of sloppy thinking
and his intolerance of failure to live up to the intellectual ca-
pacity one was judged to possess. In Graham's own work, in
fact, the standards he held out for himself were so high that he
found it difficult to tolerate any error at all. Like all perfec-
tionists, he suffered agonies of remorse over any slip, no matter
how trivial, that found its way into his lectures or published
articles. Perhaps it was a stern New England upbringing that
imposed these strictures upon his behavior, yet allowed him to
be among the most generous and considerate of masters in his
relationships with a student.
From his birth in 1906 until his doctorate in 1930 Graham
remained in Worcester, Massachusetts. His parents had emi-
grated from County Donegal in Ireland, and his father was a
skilled metal worker in a Worcester factory. Clarence was the
oldest of four children. He entered public school at the age of
five and graduated from high school at seventeen. As a school-
boy he put in long hours, not only in study but also in part-time
employment to supplement the family's income and prepare for
his own higher education. In an autobiographical sketch he
recalled that, during the summer following his graduation from
high school, he worked a forty-eight-hour week at a steel wire
mill, earning forty cents an hour. Thus was developed the pat-
tern of hard work that lasted him the rest of his life, a pattern
that left him no time for idleness and little even for the tradi-
tional forms of recreation.
Clark University in Worcester was primarily a graduate
school, but in 1923 it accepted Graham as one of a small num-
ber of undergraduates to qualify for admission. So strong was
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CLARENCE HENRY GRAHAM
73
his intellectual curiosity that he started immediately to explore
many areas of the humanities and sciences. Finally, after nearly
three years of college life, he selected psychology as his major
subject. This choice he attributes mainly to the fact that a
member of the faculty, John Paul Nafe, took a personal interest
in the small band of students who were interested in the labora-
tory side of psychology at that time. Nafe, whose work was
mainly in the cutaneous senses, had what Graham called a
magical ability to communicate to others his fascination with
the phenomena of perception. This, too, stayed with Graham
the rest of his life.
Undergraduate and graduate education overlapped one
another at Clark, and the entire faculty of psychology consisted
of four men who shared in the teaching at all levels. Graham
soon found himself drawn into the graduate program of re-
search, and his formal enrollment in the graduate program
followed immediately the attainment of his undergraduate
degree. Walter Hunter was the strongest figure of the group, a
benevolent dictator who was to be Graham's chief mentor, not
only in these years at Clark but also, later on, at Brown. Hunter,
at the height of his own research career, early saw in Graham
the signs of intellectual talent that would one day take him far
beyond the borders of Worcester, Massachusetts.
At the graduate level Graham again explored several pos-
sible lines of work before settling down to a final choice. Within
the first year experiments on visual perception claimed his main
interest and were summarized in his earliest publication (1929~.
In the subsequent two vears of graduate work. Graham became
~ ·J '
Hi.c.c~t3.ched with the c~hiectivitv and essentially qualitative na-
ture of most work in visual perception. In this he was no doubt
influenced most strongly bv Walter Hunter. who had recently
_ ~ ~ v ~ ~ ,, _ ~ . , ~
A, ,
written a paper entitled, "The Subject's Report."
The main thrust of that paper was to reject "introspection"
as a method by which a subject analyzes his own sensory pro-
cesses. Hunter turned the emphasis onto the recording, by the
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74
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
experimenter, of the language responses of his subject. Gra-
ham, indeed, went even further than Hunter in insisting on a
behaviorist interpretation of what a subject reports about what
he perceives. The whole process is seen as one of setting un the
_ ~ -be- ~ 11 _ _ 1 ' 1 , 1 ~ · . ~
~ 1
-us under wn~cn one subject Is to give a verbal response,
preferably a response that is itself restricted to one of a limited
number of alternatives. The task of the experimenter is then
simply that of taking an objective record of the responses that
the subject makes. Thus is the subjectivity of visual perception
brought under the objective control of scientific research. This
sort of thinking led Graham to use one of the standard psycho-
physical methods, in which the subject is forced to say "Yes" or
"no" with respect to his perception of very weak stimuli, in
determining binocular summation in the fovea at threshold
(1930~. Furthermore, the nature of that problem was such that
physiological explanations were required. Thus Graham wn.s
1 _ 11 , , 1 ~ · . -
, , ,
lea to the realization that postdoctoral training in neurophysi-
ology would greatly benefit his career in vision and visual
perception.
The year 1930, at the beginning of the period of economic
depression, was undoubtedly a most difficult one for finding a
postdoctoral research or teaching position, and Graham was
fortunate to obtain a one-year appointment in psychology at
Temple University in Philadelphia. A five-course teaching load
did not discourage him from exploring other opportunities in
the Philadelphia area, and soon he made contact with the new
laboratory of the Johnson Foundation for Medical Physics.
This group, at the University of Pennsylvania, had been estab-
lished by Detlev Bronk, and two future Nobel laureates were
beginning their work there. Ragnar Granit was the one who
immediately welcomed Graham as a collaborator in research,
and Keffer Hartline later took Graham to Woods Hole for the
summer. During that summer, indeed, they accomplished their
historic dissection of the optic nerve of Limulus in order to
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CLARENCE HENRY GRAHAM
75
make the earliest records of single-unit activity in the visual
system (Hartline and Graham, 1932~. Graham won a National
Research Council fellowship for the continuation of this work
with Hartline in 1931-1932 at the Johnson Foundation. Dur-
ing that year Graham also found time to take a course with
Jacobs on the quantitative treatment of experimental data in
general physiology. This completed the formal training of
Clarence Graham for his lifework of teaching and research in
vision, with emphasis on quantification and physiological inter-
pretation of the data.
Three universities were to share in Graham's academic
productivity: Clark, 1932-1936; Brown, 1936-1945; and Co-
lumbia, 1945-1971. At each in succession he established an
experimental facility for vision research, gathered around him
a group of graduate and postdoctoral students, and built up
the curriculum in the areas of his special competence.
At Clark Graham began a series of psychophysical studies
on the spatial interaction that takes place when two or more
adjacent areas of the retina are stimulated by light. This pro-
gram, together with related neurophysiological studies by E. D.
Adrian, Granit, and others, he summarized ably in a chapter
contributed to the new (1934) Handbook of General Experi-
rnental Psychology, edited by his colleague, Carl Murchison.
Several of his earliest graduate students got their start in re-
search by participating in various parametric experiments that
still stand as definitive for human observers under various con-
ditions of light and dark adaptation.
Likewise at Clark, he enlisted my aid in the pursuit of
some electrophysiological experiments along the lines of those
he had started with Granit and Hartline. An old string galva-
nometer, borrowed from Hudson Hoagland, was used in early
studies of the electroretinogram (ERG) in the rat, pigeon, and
frog. For these studies homemade direct-current amplifiers,
wick electrodes, animal holders, and shielding equipment were
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BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
assembled at minimum cost in a small toolshop used by all the
graduate students.
A feature of the ERG experiments on the white rat was to
strap the animal to a miniature table and place a cotton wick
electrode in contact with the cornea of the eye. Graham was
extremely anxious to get ERG records of high quality, and this
made it necessary to immobilize the animal by tightening the
restraining straps. Graham was caught squarely between his
anxiety to get records of high quality and his sympathy for the
animal. Throughout the experiment he would repeatedly
tighten the straps around the rat's head, meanwhile chanting,
"Poor damned animal; poor damned animal!"
One more enterprise begun at Clark was Graham's course
in the quantitative treatment of experimental data. This semi-
nar gave his graduate students an insight into such mathemati-
cal manipulations as numerical transforms, curve fitting, and
the testing of hypotheses to account for the results of an experi-
ment. Over the next forty years this kind of course was con-
tinued, not only by Graham but by his followers in many other
universities. Courses having a similar aim were those of Jacobs
in physiology, Daniels in chemistry, and smoothing in physics.
But the Graham course for the first time brought experimental
psychology into line with other sciences with respect to the
processing of data for effective publication in journals and
books.
When Hunter was called to the chairmanship at Brown in
1936, he took Graham with him to represent sensory and physio-
logical psychology in a department that had already achieved a
considerable status in experimental psychology under the pre-
ceding head, Leonard Carmichael. Together with Schlosberg,
Hunt, and Kemp they taught large numbers of undergraduates
and gradually expanded the graduate program of seminars and
research. The old frame dwelling at 89 Waterman Street had
to provide offices for all the department, so that the research in
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CLARENCE HENRY GRAHAM
77
vision had to be conducted in small basement rooms that in-
cluded a former furnace room and several adjoining coal bins.
The judicious use of partitions and hallways made of this base-
ment a suite of cubicles in which both animal and human
research in vision could be set up.
The five years at Brown preceding the Second World War
Graham has called "some of the happiest of my life." Those
joining the staff included Donald Lindsley, Lorrin Rims, and
Carl Pfaffmann. Graduate students brought Into the Graham
orbit of research included Fred Mote, Robert Gagne, Neil Bart-
lett, Conrad Mueller, and William Verplanck. Other than
teaching. there were few constraints on this aroup's avid pursuit
~ ~O ~ ~ · ~ ~
of experiments. At odd hours, too, classroom space could be
. ~ . ~ ~ ~
used tor poker games, plng-pong, and musical ourpourl~lgs.
World War II brought another phase of Graham's career,
that of organizing large teams of research personnel for specific
projects related to the war effort. A major portion of this work
centered around the visual aspects of gunfire control, especially
in the tracking of aircraft targets. Two other team efforts were
for the selection of specialized military personnel, and the
screening of recruits with problems of emotional instability.
The supervision of these projects was at Brown, but they were
conducted also at a dozen other locations throughout the coun-
try, and about one hundred and fifty persons participated in
them. Among those from the Brown psychology group were
Bartlett, Berry, Gagne, J. McV. Hunt, Mote, Mueller, Riggs,
Solomon, Stellar, and Verplanck. In recognition of his key role
in setting up these programs, Graham was awarded the Presi-
dential Certificate of Merit in 1948.
At the conclusion of the war in 1945, Graham was called to
his final academic appointment, that of successor to Robert S.
Woodworth at Columbia. Thus, at the age of thirty-nine, he
ascended to greatly enlarged facilities and opportunities by
comparison with those he had left at Clark and then at Brown.
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BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
Now he found himself directing as many as eight or ten Ph.D.
theses, while at the same time teaching the advanced course for
graduate students in experimental psychology and sharing with
Selig Hecht a graduate seminar in vision. In 1947 Hecht died,
and Graham fell heir to much of his specialized equipment. In
addition, Hecht's former collaborator, Yun Hsia, came to work
with Graham on problems of color vision. Hsia had been a
student in psychology with R. S. Woodworth. Together he and
Graham conducted many extensive studies of normal color
vision and a number of explorations of color-blind visual func-
tions. Perhaps the most significant of the Graham and Hsia
studies was that of a woman with normal color vision in one
eye and dichromatic vision in the other. Of particular interest
was the fact that this subject saw only two hues in her dichro-
matic eye; wavelengths shorter than 502 nm were seen as a blue
that matched 470 nm as seen by the normal eye, while wave-
lengths longer than 502 nm were seen as yellow, matching a
wavelength of 570 nm as seen by the normal eye. The 502-nm
wavelength could therefore be regarded as a neutral point of
the spectrum, appearing white to the subject and separating the
two basic receptor systems that were present in her dichromatic
eye.
A large number of graduate students owe the beginning of
their research careers to Graham in his years at Columbia.
Among them may be mentioned Munehira Akita, Howard
Baker, Shakantala Balaraman, Aleeza Beare, Eda Berger, John L.
Brown, John Coulson, Leonard Diamond, John Foley, Barbara
Gillam, Elaine Hammer, David Henderson, Robert Herrick,
Gerald Howett, Joyce Kerr, Herschel Leibowitz, Alfred Lit,
V. V. Lloyd, George Long, Barbara Mates, Leonard Matin,
Conrad Mueller, Celeste McCullough, Joel Pokorny, loan Pol-
lock, Philburn Ratoosh, Vivianne Smith, Harry Sperling, Flor-
ence Veniar, Gary Yonemura, and Richard Zegers. Graham's
marriage to Dr. Hammer took place in 1949, and she devoted
herself to his welfare until his death in 1971.
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CLARENCE HENRY GRAHAM
79
During the Columbia years Graham edited, and wrote a
considerable part of a book, Vision and Visual Perception
(1965), with co-authors J. L. Brown, N. R. Bartlett, Y. Hsia,
C. G. Mueller, and L. A. Riggs. This volume summarized the
field in a definitive fashion for students and research workers.
Also during these years Graham spent an academic sabbatical
leave as scientific liaison officer with the Office of Naval Re-
search in London, 1952-1953. This was an important post in
providing contacts between European laboratories and those of
the United States in experimental psychology. During a visit
to Japan in August and September of 1952, he conducted an
intensive seminar for faculty members from several of the lead-
ing Japanese universities, to acquaint them with research going
on in the United States in vision and visual perception. A
direct result of this enterprise was the visits to the United
States of a number of the participants and their students, some
of whom completed their graduate or postdoctoral education in
this country. Indeed, it is true that Graham introduced such
topics as visual contrast and figural aftereffects into Japanese
experimental psychology.
During the last four years of his life, Graham suffered sev-
eral physical setbacks, including a heart attack, pneumonia, and
a broken hip. With care and encouragement from his wife, he
kept up his writing and maintained contact with his laboratory.
Even under these trying conditions he continued to be generous
of his time and interest in his graduate students. But the uphill
fight was lost in the summer of 1971, and he died on July 25.
A memorial service was held on August 6 at which many of his
former students, friends, and associates paid tribute to his
memory.
Among the honors accorded him during his lifetime are the
following: Howard Crosby Warren Medal, Society of Experi-
mental Psychologists, 1941; election to the National Academy
of Sciences, 1946; Presidential Certificate of Merit, 1948; Hon-
orary Sc.D. Degree from Brown University, 1958; Certificate of
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BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
Appreciation, Office of Naval Research, 1961; Tillyer Medal,
Optical Society of America, 1963; Distinguished Scientific Con-
tribution Award, American Psychological Association, 1966.
The book Vision and Visual Perception will unquestionably
stand for a long time to come as a monument to its editor and
principal author, Clarence Graham. Aside from its factual
material, uniquely present in this one volume at the time of
its publication, in 1965, the book exemplifies three of the main
themes of Graham's own life.
First, and most important, is the theme of objectivity. Un-
doubtedly, the objective orientation of the book owes itself to
the behaviorist tradition in American psychology, a tradition
with which Graham was closely identified through his early
association with Walter Hunter and his later contacts with B. F.
Skinner. His introductory chapter, "Some Basic Terms and
Methods," goes to great lengths (some would say too great
lengths) in expounding the behaviorist views on such visual
sensations as hue, brightness, and saturation. Of hue, for ex-
ample, Graham says, "The term is to be understood as either a
label for or as an inferred effect . . . in the following stimulus-
response sequence: (a) instructions to a subject who has had a
past history with the vocabulary represented in the instructions,
(b) the presentation of radiant energy to the subject, and (c) the
subject's responses." In a later chapter, Graham quotes Skinner,
with respect to the names that are attached to hues, as follows:
"If the person says 'green' to light of wavelength 530 me, such
a response obtains social approval; it is the 'correct response.' "
The point of all this is to approach the entire subject of color
vision with the aim of avoiding the ambiguities that might
creep in if anything so personal and subjective as color naming
were to be used as a major source of information. Instead,
Graham emphasized that truly scientific studies of color vision
must fulfill the criteria of objectivity. That is, the stimulus
situation must be carefully specified and controlled, and the
responses of the subject must be carefully tabulated by the
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CLARENCE HENRY GRAHAM
81
experimenter. Among the stimulus conditions are not only the
primary ones, such as the wavelength, luminance, and other
dimensions of the light, but also the instructions to the subject
and the various environmental and physical conditions under
which the experiment is carried out. The instructions should
typically limit the subject to two possible responses, such as
"match" or "mismatch" in the case of color judgments and
"seen" or "not seen" in determining a threshold. Standard
psychophysical procedures may then be used to estimate the
critical value of the stimulus at which the judgment shifts from
one category to the other; this value yields a quantitative defini-
tion of the subject's sensory discrimination. Certainly, it is true
that objectivity was an important consideration in the selection
of material to be included or excluded in the coverage of the
Graham book, particularly with respect to certain fields of
. . .
visual perception.
A second point of major emphasis in Graham's thinking was
the physiological basis for vision and visual perception. In this
regard he differed strongly with Skinner and other psychologists
of behaviorist backgrounds. Perhaps it was his lifelong associa-
tion with neurophysiologists, beginning with Granit and Hart-
line, that led him to the conviction that hypotheses about vision
should be mainly physiological. In any event, he included in
the coverage of the 1965 book specific chapters on the structure,
electrophysiology, and photochemistry of vision. Furthermore,
a majority of the specific topics in vision and visual perception
are handled in such a way as to emphasize the probable physio-
logical bases for the findings.
The third characteristic of Graham's approach to vision,
also clearly exemplified in the book, is his attention to the
quantitative analysis of data. There are many instances of his
care in fitting curves to data, testing theoretical models against
experimental results, and illustrating by graphical displays the
essential features of research information.
Those of us who were privileged to write doctoral disserta-
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BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
tions under Graham's direction remember his meticulous
editing of manuscript, checking and rechecking of data, and
laborious reworking of tables and graphs to maximize useful
information from our experimental findings. From their ex-
posure to this kind of scientific experience, the more than sev-
enty graduate students at Clark, at Brown, and at Columbia—
who completed their work for the Ph.D. degree under his
direction learned that hard work and generosity were part of
the game, but compromise, never. By the wider community of
scholars Graham will be remembered for his high scientific
standards and for his dedication to the fields of vision and visual
perception.
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CLAREN CE HENRY GRAHAM
BIBLIOGRAPHY
KEY TO ABBREVIA TIONS
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Some observations on psychology in Japan. Transactions of the
New York Academy of Sciences, 16:83-87.
1954
With K. Sato. Psychology in.Japan. Psychol. Rev., 51:443-64.
With Y. Hsia. Luminosity curves for normal and dichromatic sub-
jects including a case of unilateral color-blindness. Science,
120:780.
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CLARENCE HENRY GRAHAM
1955
87
With Y. Hsia, and E. Berger. Luminosity functions for normal and
dichromatic subjects including a case of unilateral color-blind-
ness. i. Opt. Soc. Am., 45:407.
1957
With Y. Hsia.
315-18.
Luminosity losses in dichromats. Optician, 134:
Form perception and sensory processes. In: Form Discrimination
as Related to Military Problems, ed. by I. W. Wulfeck and i. H.
Taylor, pp. 25-27. Washington, D. C., National Research
Council.
1958
With Y. Hsia. Spectral luminosity curves for protanopic, deuter-
anopic and normal subjects. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 43: 1011-19.
Sensation and perception in an objective psychology. Psychol.
Rev., 65: 65-76.
Walter Samuel Hunter, 1889-1954. In: Biographical Memoirs,
National Academy of Sciences, 1:127-55. New York, Columbia
University Press.
With Y. Hsia. The spectral luminosity curves for a dichromatic
eye and a normal eye in the same person. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.,
44:46-49.
Color defect and color theory: studies on normal and color-blind
persons including a unilaterally dichromatic subject. Science,
127:675-82.
With Y. Hsia. The discriminations of a normal and color-blind
eye in the same person. Proceedings of the American Philo-
sophical Society, 102: 168-73.
With E. Berger and Y. Hsia. Some visual functions of a unilaterally
color-blind person. I. Critical fusion frequency at various spec-
tral regions. J. Opt. Soc. Am., 48 61~22.
With E. Berger and Y. Hsia. Some visual functions of a unilater-
ally color-blind person. II. Binocular brightness matches at
various spectral regions. l. Opt. Soc. Am., 48:622-27.
With Y. Hsia. Color-blindness and color theory. A.M.A. Archives
of Ophthalmology, 60(Part 2~:792-99.
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BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
1959
With Y. Hsia. Studies of color-blindness: a unilaterally dichro-
matic subject. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 45:96-99.
Color theory. In: Psychology: A Study of a Science. Vol. 1. Sen-
sory, Perceptual and Physiological Formulations, ed. by S. Koch,
pp. 145-288. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co.
1960
With Y. Hsia.
417.
A short survey of some leading psychological laboratories in Japan.
Columbia University. 36 pp.
Luminosity losses in deuteranopes. Science, 131:
1961
With H. G. Sperling, Y. Hsia, and A. H. Coulson. The determina-
tion of some visual functions of a unilaterally color-blind sub-
ject: methods and results. i. Psychol., 51:3-32.
With Y. Hsia. Some visual functions of a unilaterally dichromatic
subject. In: Visual Problems of Color (Symposium held at the
National Physical Laboratory on September 23-25, 1957), vol. 1,
pp. 283-97. New York, Chemical Publishing Company, Inc.
lg62
With S. Balaraman and Y. Hsia. The wave length discrimination
of some color-blind persons. l. Gen. Psychol., 66:185-201.
With P. Ratoosh. Notes on some interrelations of sensory psy-
chology, perception and behavior. In: Psychology: ~ Study of
a Science, ed. by S. Koch, vol. 4, pp. 483-514.
Graw-Hill Book Co.
1963
New York, Mc-
Simple discriminatory functions: review, summary and discussion.
J. Opt. Soc. Am., 53: 161-65.
On some aspects of real and apparent visual movement. I. Opt.
Soc. Am., 53: 1015-25.
1964
With M. Akita, and Y. Hsia. Maintaining an absolute hue in the
presence of different background colors. Vision Res., 4:539-56.
OCR for page 89
C L A R E N C E H E N R Y G R A H A M
1965
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With N. R. Bartlet';, [. L. Brown, Y. Hsia, C. G. Mueller, and L. A.
Riggs. Vision and Visual Perception. New York, John Wiley
& Sons. 637 pp.
1966
With M. Akita. Maintaining an absolute test hue in the presence
of different background colors and luminance ratios. Vision
Res., 6:315-23.
With I. M. Siegel, H. Ripps, and Y. Hsia. Analysis of photopic and
scotopic function in an incomplete achromat. I. Opt. Soc. Am.,
56:699-704.
Robert Sessions Woodworth, 1869-1962.
Biographical Memoirs,
National Academy of Sciences, 39:541-72. New York, Colum-
bia University Press.
1967
With Y. Hsia, and F. F. Stephan.
Visual discrimination of a subject
with acquired unilateral tritanopia. Vision Res., 7:469-79.
With B. Mates, and R. Shlaer. Two apparatus arrangements for
the study of real movement. Psychologia, 10:210-12.
1968
Depth and movement. American Psychologist, 23:18-26.
With l. Pokorny, and R. N. Lanson. The effect of wavelength on
foveal grating acuity. i. Opt. Soc. Am., 58: 1404-14.
Edith R. Shlaer. Two apparatus assemblies for the study of real
movement. Behavior Research Methods and Instrumentation,
1:18-20.
1969
With Y. Hsia. Saturation and the foveal achromatic threshold.
J. Opt. Soc. Am., 59:993-97.
1970
With B. Mates. The effect of rectangle length on velocity thresh-
olds for real movement. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 65:516-20.
With B. l. Gillam. Occurrence of theoretically correct responses
during rotation of the Ames window. Perception and Psycho-
physics, 8: 257-60.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
biographical memoirs
