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LEONARD CARMICHAEL
November 9, 1898~eptember 16, 1973
BY CARL PFAFFMANN
LEONARD CARMICHAEL was born in the Germantown
section of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He was the only
chilc] of Thomas Harrison Carmichael, a successful physi-
cian, and Emily Henrietta Leonard Carmichael, an active
volunteer worker on many charitable boarcis. At the time of
her death, she was chief of the Bureau of Recreation of
Philadelphia. His maternal grandfather, Charles Hall
Leonard, D.D., LL.D., was Dean of the Crane Theological
School of Tufts University for many years.
Leonard attenclec! the Germantown Friends School,
although his parents were not Quakers. He further cemented
the family traditions with Tufts when he entered the Uni-
versity in ~ 917. Not only was his grandfather a dean at Tufts,
but his uncles attencied college there. Leonard was elected to
Phi Beta Kappa in his junior year, and received a B.S. degree
summa cum laude in 1921. He was much influencer! by his
senior research project on the embryology of the eye muscles
of the shark, which aroused his interest in the sense organs as
directors of animal behavior. His interest in sensory psy-
chology ant! physiology became a dominant theme in his later
scientific career. As an undergraduate, he was much influ-
encect by the books of Jacques Loeb, the biologist ultra-
mechanist, and C. Lloyd Morgan, the proponent of emergent
25
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26
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
evolution. After reacting Howard C. Warren's Human Psy-
chology, however, Leonard decided that psychology (rather
than anatomy or physiology) was the discipline in which he
could best stucly the senses with a view to their functional, as
well as biological, setting.
He entered Harvard as a graduate student on a fellowship
provicled by the eclucational psychologist, Professor Walter F.
Dearborn, with whom he developed an especially close as-
sociation. He was assignee! a fine office and adjoining labora-
tory, and was able to work in the Harvarc! shop, rebuilding an
improved mode! of the famous Dodge-Dearborn eye move-
ment recorcling camera. Carmichael was encouraged to
satisfy his interest in biology, as well as psychology, and he did
so with a number of zoology courses. His first piece of gracI-
uate laboratory research was a quantitative study of the reac-
tion of the meal worm (Tenebrio molitor ) to light, uncler the
direction of G. H. Parker, professor of zoology. Carmichael
regardecl Parker's lectures on the nervous system and the
sense organs as models of clarity and scholarship. Among his
psychology professors were E. G. Boring, I,. T. Troland, and
William McDougall.
Carmichael's continuing interest in the sensory control of,
or release of, inborn patterns of behavior led Dearborn to
recommend a theoretical ant! historical Ph.D. dissertation on
the psychology ant! biology of human and animal instincts. A
summary of the conclusions was published in an article
entitled "Hereclity and Environment: Are They Antitheti-
car?" William Preyer's studies of signs of life in the fetus
before birth pointed the way for Carmichael to investigate
morphological growth of receptors and the nervous system in
relation to behavior released at various stages of early onto-
genetic development in mammals before learning begins, or
is important. After receiving his Ph.D. degree, he was
awarded a Sheldon Fellowship, which permitted travel and
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LEONARD CARMICHAEL
27
study abroad. "Report of a Sheldon Fellow," published in the
Harvard Alumni Bulletin (1925), describes his visits to the
University of Berlin and other German universities.
In ~ 924 he joined the faculty of Princeton to teach physio-
logical psychology and the history and systems of psychology.
There he began his research on the development of behavior
with larval amblystoma and frog tadpoles. It hac! previously
been shown that their physical development proceeded
normally in laboratory Petri dishes when immobilized with a
mild concentration of the anesthetic, chioretone. Carmichael
focussecI upon behavioral development when presumably all
sensory input was reduced, and clearly all motor movement
inhibited, so that no practice was possible. In the strongly
antihereditarian point of view that dominates! American
behavioral psychology at that time, the outcome of this
experiment arousal widespread interest. Carmichael found
that when the anesthetic was removed, the experimentally
treated organisms swam with vigor and coordination equal to
that of the undrugged controls, who were allowed to move
throughout development. As he stated in his autobi-
ography:
.
These studies supported a hereditary rather than an environmentalistic
theory of the determination of the growth of organized behavior. At the
time, the results of these experiments surprised me and almost shocked
me. They did not support my then strongly held belief in the determining
influence of the environment at every stage in the growth of behavior.*
Carmichael's reports of these experiments inPsycho~ogzvcai
Review (1926, 1927, and 1928) seemed to dodge the obvious
conclusion. He continued to speak of the intimate inter-
relation of heredity and environment and the difficulties of
i- e · · e
ulsentang log t nelr Interaction.
*Leonard Carmichael, "Leonard Carmichael," in A History of Psychology in Autob'-
ography, ed. E. G. Boring and Gardner Lindzey, vol. 5 (N.Y.: Appleton-Century
Crofts, 1967), p. 37.
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BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
It was also at Princeton that he became interested in the
history of research on reflex action, and published two
papers, one on Robert Whytt ant! the second on Sir Charles
Bell. Carmichael made frequent mention of Bell as an early
contributor to physiological psychology. Indeed, Carmichael
and his graduate students ant! colleagues former! the Sir
Charles Bell Society and met together for clinner and general
reports of one's doings cluring the Annual Meetings of the
American Psychological Association.
Carmichael's paper on Bell (Psychological Review, 1926)
was a careful review of Bell's contributions, such as his recog-
nition in IS} ~ of many of the facts that Johann Muller later
included in his IS38 Handbook uncler the doctrine of specific
nerve energies. Bell clearly understood that the same stim-
ulus will give two different sensations, depencling upon the
nerves affected. He noted that a sharp steel-point applied to
one type of papilla on the tongue would cause a feeling of
sharpness by way of the sense of touch. When a taste papilla
was touched, he perceives! a metallic taste but no touch. Bell
also gave a treatment of the five senses, reciprocal innerva-
tion of antagonistic muscles, and wrote on the expression of
the emotions. On Bell's controversial priority for the demon-
stration of the separate functions of the dorsal ant! ventral
roots of the spinal cord, Carmichael supported Bell's priority
on the law that bears his name. Carmichael noted: "Magendie
perhaps independently gave the principle a more exact form-
ulation and a clear physiological proof."* More recent his-
torical (documentary evidence has become available and is
interpreted by Cranefielc} (1974) to give the priority to
Magendie.!
* Leonard Carmichael, "Sir Charles Bell: A Contribution to the History of Physio-
logical Psychology," Psychological Review, 33: 196.
t Paul Frederic Cranefield, The Way In and the Way Out, Franco?s Mag~rutie, Charles
Bell arm the Roots of the Spinal Nerve (Mount Kisco, N.Y.: Futura, 1974).
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LEONARD CARMICHAEL
29
Carmichael moved to Brown University in 1927 as one of
the youngest full professors on the Brown faculty, still in his
twenties at the time of his appointment. He hac! been
recruited to built! a new laboratory and graduate department
and to strengthen the undergraduate program in psy-
chology. Carmichael was an excellent and popular lecturer.
His elementary psychology lecture sections filled the largest
lecture hall on campus. He personally gave all the lectures in
the three successive sections every Monday ant! Friday morn-
ing. He enlivener! his lectures with dramatic, but clear,
demonstrative material, slides, ant} film strips. junior faculty
and graduate student teaching assistants conducted the quiz
sections cluring the week. Leonard was voted the most
popular teacher at the University a number of times by the
students.
~ was an undergraduate student at Brown when ~ first met
L,eonarcI. He was then a young bachelor, whose (lashing
campus image was reinforced by a bright red Buick roadster.
The ridclle of his numerous trips to Cambridge was solver! by
his marriage to Pear! L. Kidston of Hudson, Massachusetts,
on June 30, ~ 932. After graduation from college, she worked
at Harvard's Graduate School of Eclucation. They had one
child, Martha, born during Leonard's last year at Brown.
Martha married S. Parker Oliphant, and their first chilc! was
named Leonard Carmichael Oliphant.
Although Carmichael was busily involvecl in organizing
the new laboratory and department, equipping it for re-
search and for graduate training in experimental and physio-
log~cal psychology, ant! carrying out his own research, he
personally taught undergraduate and graduate courses and
guided the research of honor undergracluates ant! several
graduate students. While ~ was an unclergracluate at Brown,
any doubts on my own career plans were settled after com-
pletion of Carmichael's elementary psychology course. In-
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BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
deecI, Carmichael was my first ant] most important mentor
and guided my honors and master's research in physiological
sensory psychology. He urgent me to apply for a Rhodes
Scholarship to study physiology at Oxford. The Rhodes
Scholarship was awarclec! to me, and following my studies at
Oxford, ~ went on to Cambridge University. After two years
of graduate work under the late Lord Adrian, ~ received my
Ph.D. degree. Throughout the years, my strong personal ties
with Leonard and Pear] Carmichael prospered.
At Brown University, Carmichael achiever! his long-
cherished goal of studying the development of behavior in
fetal mammals. His study began with the fetal cat, and he
developed an especially clesigned cradle in which the preg-
nant cat couch be supported, so that after Cesarean section,
the fetus; with fetal circulation intact, floated in a bath of
warmed saline solution. A high cervical section of the
maternal spinal cord permitted discontinuance of anesthetic,
and thus the fetus could be studied in a normal physiological
state, free of anesthetic.
lames Coronius and Harold SchIosberg participated with
Carmichael in the first study of the fetal cat. Verbal records
of descriptions of the behavior were dictatecI, ant] motion
pictures were taken. Interest was focussed on the responses
to well-controllec! sensory stimulation. In addition to fetal
cats, Carmichael and his students subsequently made a pro-
longed series of studies on the development of behavior of
the fetal guinea pig. More than 100 cutaneous pressure
reflexogenous zones were studied throughout the entire
active prenatal life of sixty-eight days. Carmichael noted in
The Experimental Embryology of Mind ( ~ 94 ~ ):
Thus it is not the physical character ot the stimulus, but rather that it
shall be above the threshold of some of the complex of skin receptors and
in a specific locus, that determines the response. Such typical patterns of
behavior remain amazingly constant in an organism that is rapidly grow-
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LEONARD CARMICHAEL
31
ing, and, conversely but similarly, growth may suddenly alter such re-
sponses, and such alterations of behavior may easily be confused with
learned responses, especially in postnatal life.
I have never seen any responses in the late fetus which, in their
elements, have not appeared as a typical patterned reaction to isolated
stimuli many times before. In the late guinea pig fetus the hair coat is well
grown, the teeth are erupted, eyes and ears are functional, and adaptive
integrated behavior is well established. At this time such an animal will, to
use the language of teleology, attempt in a most effective and even inge-
nious way to deal with a factual stimulus applied to its lip. First, it may be,
it will attempt to remove the stimulus by curling the lip; then, if the
stimulus remains, it is brushed by the forepaw on the stimulated side. If the
stimulus still persists, the head is turned sharply. Finally, a general struggle
is resorted to which involves movements of all four limbs and all trunk
muscles. In a late fetus this final maneuver is sometimes so quick and
effective that the experimenter is often thwarted and the offending stim-
ulus is removed by a guinea pig fetus that is having its own willful and
annoying way in spite of anything the experimenter can do. Each of these
special responses, however, may be seen as an old one to the person who
has watched the growth of fetal behavior.
Complex patterns of behavior emerge as a result of maturation. Such
behavior is possibly as truly end-seeking and purposeful as is any behavior
in the world which does not involve the use of language. I see no reason
to believe that this emergent purposeful behavior is not as natural a result
of the processes of growth as is the length of the fetal whiskers, and quite
as independent of learning.
The growing animal functions in a way that is in general adaptive at
every stage. When I wrote my first papers in this field, dealing with the
development of drugged amblystoma, I was so under the domination of a
universal conditioned reflex theory of the development of adaptive re-
sponses that I denied categorically the truth of the statement just made.
But every experiment that I have done in the field of the early growth of
behavior has forced me to retreat from this environmentalist hypothesis.
Now, literally almost nothing seems to me to be left of this hypothesis so far
as the very early development of behavior is concerned.
The classical work of Preyer and Coghill on the sequence
of motility in the developing amphibian larvae showed the
first movement to be a C shaper! or reversed C curvature.
This was followed by an S or sigmoid form of reaction. The
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32 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
S movement was funciamental to swimming, which consisted!
of a succession of sigmoid movements before the limbs clevel-
oped. When they did appear, both sets of limbs moved only
as part of the larger trunk movement. Independent limb
action gradually began to indivicluate out of the dominant
trunk movements. Movement of the trunk in walking was
regarded as nothing more nor less than swimming move-
ments at a generally reduced speed. Development, from the
very beginning, was a progressive expansion of a perfectly
integrated total pattern from which partial patterns incli-
viduated with various degrees of discreteness.
Carmichael saw something different in fetal mammals.
He gave more importance to the early indivicluation of quite
specific responses, which later became parts of integrated
behaviors. Rather than debate the pros and cons of a wholistic
versus specific development, Carmichael cautioned that the
researcher would clo better to record! as unambiguously as
possible the responses made by a fetus at any stage rather
than to fit all clevelopmental changes into one formula. He
agreed with William James's statement that: "Psychology
must be writ both in synthetic and analytic terms."*
Carmichael's work began at a time when the advances in
ethology documenting the release of species-specific be-
havior by patterned stimuli were not well known to the Amer-
ican biological and psychological communities. The regular
occurrence of these species-specific behaviors, ant! their
occurrence in vacua, that is, where animals were rearer! in
isolation so that postnatal experience did not occur, led
Konrad Lorenz and Nikko Tinbergen to argue for the
instinctive basis of much of animal behavior that occurred
under natural circumstances. Such "releaser stimuli" were
*William James, Principles of Psychology, vol. ~ (N.Y.: Dover, IS90), p. 487.
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LEONARD CARMI CHAEL
33
often perceptually complex, for example, a sequence of
movements by another animal, coloring and size of an egg, or
particular location and size of a rec! bill spot.
Psychologists as a group even now tend to be cautious in
attributing behavior patterns to genetically (letermine(1 pro-
cesses or propensities. Still, increasing interaction among
students of animal behavior and psychology is reacting to a
souncler appreciation of the role of genetic determinants in
behavior, both in their own right and as setting the stage
upon which experience and learning can interact. Car-
michael's influence on thought regarcling the development
of behavior and its serisory control was, in a sense, premoni-
tory of such changing views on the heredity-environment
issue. His two editions of the Manual of Child Psychology ( I st
ecl., 1946; 2nd ea., 1954), and a more recent third edition
(1970) of Carmichael's Manual of Child Psychology, under Paul
Mussen's editorship, are witness to his never flagging interest
in behavioral clevelopment.
Carmichael left Brown University in 1936 to become
Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences and professor of
psychology at the University of Rochester. Two years later,
he accepted the presidency of Tufts University with the un-
derstanding that he be allowed to continue his scientific work.
However, he was less able to elevate his energies to his past
scientific interests, since World War I! efforts overlapped
with his Tufts years. The Laboratory of Sensory Physiology
ant! Psychology at Tufts turned to war-related projects which
inclucled the improvement and application of new techniques
to the stucly of eye movements and visual fatigue. Electronic,
rather than ocular photography proved more suitable for
long time reading fatigue studies, an oic! interest from his
clays with Dearborn.
To this method of registration couIcl be addled the simul-
taneous registration of brain waves, the electrical signs of
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BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
oscillatory neural activity in different brain regions through-
out the reading and other visual tasks. A book, Reading and
Visual Fatigue (co-authored with Dearborn), appeared in
1947. He had pioneered with H. H. Jasper at Brown and the
Bradley House some of the first EEG (elect~roencephalo-
graphic) registration of brain waves in humans ant! animals
(1935~.
He contributed in many other ways to the war effort. He
was particularly proud of his role as director of the National
Roster of Scientific and Specialized Personnel, which dicI in-
valuable work in the recruitment ant! assignment of scientists
for the atomic energy and racier projects, among others. In
the period from 1939 to 1945, he commuter! between Tufts
and Washington once or twice weekly, as he mentioned in his
autobiography, "spencling more than a year of nights on a
sleeping car between Boston and Washington."* He also
served on a number of advisory committees and boards at the
national level. in 1947 and 1948, he was chairman of the
American Council on Education.
Carmichael was elected to the American Acaclemy of Arts
and Sciences in 1932 and to the American Philosophical
Society in 1942. He was electec! to the National Academy of
Sciences in ~ 943 and served as the chairman of its Section on
Psychology from 1950 to 1953. He was president of the
American Philosophical Society from ~ 970 to ~ 973. For
almost a quarter of a century, he was a member, and for
much of the time chairman, of the Boarc! of Scientific
Directors of the Yerkes Laboratories of Primate Biology.
I,ater he served on a similar board for the Delta Regional
Primate Research Center ant! for many years was on the
* Leonard Carmichael, "Leonard Carmichael," in A History of Psychology in Autobi-
ography, ed. E. G. Boring and Gardner Lindzey, vol. 5 (N.Y.: Appleton-Century
Crofts, 1967), p. 48.
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LEONARD CARMICHAEL
37
years a better and better understancling of the mechanisms of
adaptive response ant! of mental life.
Leonard Carmichael as a person was formicIable. He was
taller than average and had an unusually resonant voice. For
over half of his career, he was extremely formal in per-
sonal relations. He never called his graduate students by first
names until some several years after their doctorate. He was
similarly formal with his working associates. With years,
however, he mellowed, as do most. Gatherings of his former
students at meetings of the Sir Charles Bell Society became
more relaxed, but still formal. Those meetings, hosted by
Leonard and Pear! at their Georgetown home, with a superb
buffet and ample libation; were a corclial exchange of aca-
demic reminiscences and family doings, ant] less the inquisi-
tions on research done or not clone that hac! characterized
earlier meetings. The moot! was one of affectionate loyalty to
the "good (loctor."
Much more couIcT be said of Leonarc! Carmichael, his
activities in national affairs and in the scientific and ecluca-
tional domains. His memberships, off~cerships, awards, and
u~st~nct~ons, too numerous to recount, include twenty-three
honorary degrees, the Presiclential Citation of Merit, the Pub-
lic Service Medal of the National Academy of Sciences, orders
of merit from four foreign countries, fellowships, trustee-
ships, and a legion of responsibilities and duties of distinc-
tion. His honorary degree citation from Harvarc! best sums it
up: "A psychologist who combines distinction in his science
and success in administration."
~ WISH TO EXPRESS my appreciation to Mrs. Leonard Carmichael
for the wealth of bibliographic and other material provided and to
Leonard Mead for information on the Tufts years.
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38
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
B I B LI OGRAPH Y*
1925
With W. F. Dearborn and E. E. Lord. Special disabilities in learning
to read and write. Harvard Monographs in Educ., ser. i, 2 (1~:
pp. 36 49.
Eidetic imagery and the Binet test. I. [:duc. Psychol., 16:251-53.
An evaluation of current sensationism. Psychol. Rev., 32:192-215.
A device for the demonstration of apparent movement. Am. }.
Psychol., 36:446 48.
Heredity and environment: Are they antithetical? I. Abnorm. Soc.
Psychol., 20:245~0.
The report of a Sheldon fellow (German psychological labora-
tories). Harv. Alumni Bull., 27:1087~9.
1926
The development of behavior in vertebrates experimentally
removed from the influence of external stimulation. Psychol.
Rev., 33:51-58.
Sir Charles Bell: A contribution to the history of physiological psy-
chology. Psychol. Rev., 33:18~217.
What is empirical psychology? Am. J. Psychol., 37:521-27.
1927
A further study of the development of behavior in vertebrates
experimentally removed from the influence of external stimula-
tion. Psychol. Rev., 34:31 47.
Robert Whytt: A contribution to the history of physiological psy-
chology. Psychol. Rev., 34:287-304.
1928
A further experimental study of the development of behavior. Psy-
chol. Rev., 35:253~9.
1929
The experimental study of the development of behavior in verte-
brates. In: Proceedings and Papers of the Ninth International Con-
gress of Psychology, ed. E. G. Boring, pp. 11~15. Princeton,
N. I.: Psychological Review.
*This bibliography contains Carmichael's main scholarly and scientific works.
Book reviews, reports, discussions, printed addresses, etc., were not included.
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LEONARD CARMICHAEL
39
With H. Schlosberg. Apparatus from the Brown psychological
laboratory. In: Proceedings and Papers of the Ninth International
Congress of Psychology, ed. E. G. Boring, pp. 381~2. Princeton,
N. I.: Psychological Review.
A demonstrational Masson disk. Am. I. Psychol., 41:301.
1930
A relationship between the psychology of learning and the psy-
chology of testing. School Soc., 31 :687-93.
With H. C. Warren. Elements of Human Psychology. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin.
1931
With H. Schlosberg. A simple heat grill. Am. I. Psychol., 43:119.
With H. Schlosberg. A new stylus maze. Am. l. Psychol., 43:129.
With H. Schlosberg. A simple apparatus for the conditioned reflex.
Am.J.Psychol.,43:12~22.
A new commercial stereoscope. Am. I. Psychol., 43:644-45.
1932
With H. P. Hogan and A. A. Walter. An experimental study of the
effect of language on the reproduction of visually perceived
form. J. Exp. Psychol., 15:73~6.
With H. Gashman. A study of mirror-writing in relation to handed-
ness and perceptual motor habits. J. Gen. Psychol., 6:29~329.
With L. D. Marks. A study of the learning process in the cat in a
maze constructed to require delayed response. l. Genet. Psy-
chol., 40:955 68.
Scientific psychology and the schools of psychology. Am. J. Psy-
chiatry, 11 :955 68.
1933
Origin and prenatal growth of behavior. In: A Harutbook of Child
Psychology, Ed ea., rev. C. Murchison, pp. 31-159. Worcester,
Mass.: Clark Univ. Press.
1934
The psychology of genius. Phi Kappa Phi }., Sept., pp. 149 64.
The genetic development of the kitten's capacity to right itself
in the air when falling. Pedag. Seminary I. Genet. Psychol.,
44:453-58.
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40
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
With E. T. Raney. Localizing responses to factual stimuli in the fetal
rat in relation to the psychological problem of space per-
ception. Pedag. Seminary J. Genet. Psychol., 45:3-21.
An experimental study in the prenatal guinea pig of the origin and
development of reflexes and patterns of behavior in relation to
the stimulation of specific receptor areas during the period of
active fetal life. Genet. Psychol. Monogr., 16~6~:337~91.
1935
The response mechanism. In: Psychology, a Factual Textbook, ed.
E. G. Boring, H. S. Langfeld, and H. P. Weld, pp. ~35. N.Y.:
Wiley.
With H. H. Jasper. Electrical potentials from the intact human
brain. Science, 81:51-53.
With C. S. Bridgman. An experimental study of the onset of
behavior in the fetal guinea pig. J. Genet. Psychol., 47:247~7.
1936
A re-evaluation of the concepts of maturation and learning as
applied to the early development of behavior. Psychol. Rev.,
43:45(~70.
With K. U. Smith. The post-operative effects of removal of the
striate cortex upon certain aspects of visually controlled
behavior in the cat. Psychol. Bull., 33:751.
The development of temperature sensitivity. Psychol. Bull., 33:
777(A).
The development of behavior in fetal life and the concept of the
"organism-as-a-whole." Proc. 2d Biennial Conf. Washington,
D. C.: Society for Research in Child Development, pp. 41~4.
The problem of techniques in the study of the development of
receptor mechanisms in young animals. Proc. Ed Biennial Conf.
Washington, D. C.: Society for Research in Child Development,
pp. 45~9.
1937
With S. O. Roberts and N. Y. Wessell. A study of the judgment of
manual expression as presented in still and motion pictures. J.
Soc. Psychol., 8:11~52.
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LEONARD CARMICHAEL
41
The response mechanism. Experiments 1 and 2. In: A Manual of
Psychological Experiments, ed. E. G. Boring, H. S. Langfeld, and
H. P. Weld, pp. 1~. N.Y.: Wiley.
With G. F. I. Lehner. The development of temperature sensitivity.
J. Genet. Psychol., 50:217-27.
With H. H. Jasper and C. S. Bridgman. Art ontogenetic study of
cerebral electrical potentials in the guinea pig. I. Exp. Psychol.,
21:63-71.
With Z. Y. Kuo. A technique for the motion-picture recording of
the development of behavior in the chick embryo. I. Psychol.,
4:343~8.
1938
Learning which modifies an animal's subsequent capacity for learn-
ing. J. Genet. Psychol., 52:159 63.
Pragmatic humanism and American higher education. School Soc.,
48(1247):637~6.
With A. F. Rawdon-Smith and B. Wellman. Electrical responses
from the cochlea of the fetal guinea pig. l. Exp. Psychol., 23:
531-35.
1939
With A. C. Hoffman and B. Wellman. A quantitative comparison of
the electrical and photographic techniques of eye-movement
recording. I. Exp. Psychol., 24:4~53.
With M. F. Smith. Quantified pressure stimulation and the
specificity and generality of response in fetal life. I. Genet.
Psychol., 54:42~34.
With I. Warkentin. A study of the development of the air-ri~htinz
reflex in cats and rabbits. l. Genet. Psychol., 55:67-80.
1940
The national roster of scientific and specialized personnel. Science.
92: 13~37.
With M. H. Erickson, R. C. Tryon, E. A. Doll, D. B. Lindsley,
G. Kreezer, I. R. Knott, and N. W. Shock. The physiological
correlates of intelligence. In: 39th Yearbook of the National Society
for the Study of Education, Part ·. Intelligence: Its Nature and Nur-
ture. Bloomington, Ill.: School Publishing.
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42
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
With B. Wellman. Apparatus for producing intermittent audible
impulses. l. Exp. Psychol., 26:129-31.
1941
The experimental embryology of mind. Psychol. Bull., 38:1-28.
The national roster of scientific and specialized personnel: A
progress report. Science, 93 :217- 19.
Psychological aspects of the national roster of scientific and
specialized personnel. I. Consult. Psychol., 5:253-57.
Psychology, the individual, and education. Coll. Educ. Rec., Seattle,
Wash., 7:33~1.
The scientist in defense and recovery. Research, The Key to
Progress in Defense and Recovery, 1st Nat. Bank of Boston,
May 16, 1941.
Some educational implications of the national roster. Educ. Rec.,
23:461-73.
1942
The national roster of scientific and specialized personnel: ad
progress report. Science, 95:86 89.
1943
The number of scientific men engaged in war work. Science,
98:141- 15.
Man and society in war and peace. Christian Leader, 125:614~18.
1944
The national roster. Sci. Mon., 58:141.
With l. G. Beebe-Center and L. C. Mead. Daylight training of pilots
for night flying. Aeronaut. Eng. Rev., 3:9-34.
With L. C. Mead. The electrical recording of eye movements: A
film. 1944-45 Psychol. Cinema Reg., Bull. Pennsylvania State
College, PCR75K, 16mm. Kodachrome, 709 ft.
1945
The nation's professional manpower resources. In: Civil Service in
Wartime, pp. 97-117. Chicago, Ill.: Univ. of Chicago Press.
Psychological principles in the design and operation of military
equipment. Proc. Joint Army-Navy-osRD Conf. on Psychol.
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Problems Military Training, Pt. 1, pp. 4-7. Washington, D.C.:
Applied Psychol. Panel, NDRC.
1946
The national roster and the science foundation. Am. Sci., 34:
10(L105.
Experimental embryology of mind. In: Twentieth Century Psychology,
ed. P. L. Harriman, pp. 245-75. N.Y.: Philosophical Library.
The onset and early development of behavior. In: Manual of Child
Psychology, ed. L. Carmichael, pp. 43-166. N.Y.: Wiley.
Behavior during fetal life. In: Encyclopedia of Psychology, ed. P. L.
Harriman, pp. 198-205. N.Y.: Philosophical Library.
1947
Federal aid for college students. Assoc. Am. Coll. Bull.,
33 :86-95.
The growth of the sensory control of behavior before birth.
Psychol. Rev., 54:316-24.
With W. F. Dearborn. Reading and Visual Fatigue. Boston, Mass.:
Houghton Mifflin.
1948
Reading and visual fatigue. Proc. Am. Philos. Soc., 92:4~42.
Growth and development. In: Foundations of Psychology, ed. E. G.
Boring, H. S. Langfeld, and H. P. Weld, pp.64~9. N.Y.: Wiley.
Education and social duty. Christian Leader, 130:334-37.
1949
With W. F. Dearborn and P. W. Johnston. Oral stress and meaning
in printed material. Science, 110:404.
With l. L. Kennedy and L. C. Mead. Some recent approaches to the
experimental study of human fatigue. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
USA, 35:691-96.
1950
Perceptual assimilation in a stereoscopic illusion. Am. l. Psychol.,
63:11?-13.
The growth of the sensory control of behavior before birth. Psy-
chol. Rev., 54:31 ~24, 1947. (Reprinted in Outside Readings
in Psychol., 1950.)
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1951
Ontogenetic development. In: Handbook of Experimental Psychology,
ed. S. S. Stevens, vol. 11, pp. 281-303. N.Y.: Wiley.
The dynamic inhibiting effect of an old habit upon new habit
formation. L'Annee Psychologique, 50th year jubilee, 423-27.
1952
With W. F. Dearborn and P. W. Johnston. Psychological writing,
easy and hard for whom? Am. Psychol., 7:195-96.
1953
Manpower and human talents. Sci. News Lett., 63:154.
Counterrevolution in American education. Coll. Board Rev., 21
382-88.
1954
Psychology, the machine and society. Tech. Rev., pp. 141~4, 160,
162-66.
Psychology, the machine, and society (7th Annual Arthur Dehon
Little Memorial Lecture delivered at Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Nov.17,1953~. Boston, Mass.: Arthur MacGibbon.
Laziness and the scholarly life (address before graduate convo-
cation, Brown Univ., May 30, 1953~. Sci. Mon., 78 :208-13.
The phylogenetic development of behavior patterns. In: Genetics
and the Inheritance of Integrated Neurological and Psychiatric Pat-
terns, vol. 33, pp. 87-97. Research Publications, Association for
Research in Nervous and Mental Disease. Baltimore, Md.:
Williams & Wilkins.
The onset and early development of behavior. In: Manual of Child
Psychology, Ed ea., ed. L. Carmichael, pp. 6~185. N.Y.: Wiley.
1955
Review of Theories of Perception and the Concept of Structure, by F. H.
Allport. U.S. Quart. Book Rev., 11 :247~8.
1956
The Smithsonian Institution today and yesterday. The Tufto-
nian, 13:4-6.
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45
1957
Basic Psychology. N.Y.: Random House.
The Smithsonian Institution and the American Philosophical
Society. Proc. Am. Philos. Soc., 101:401~.
1958
Science and human nature: Retrospect and prospect. Proc. Borden
Centennial Symposium on Nutrition, pp.127-36. N.Y.: Borden
Company.
1959
Comprehension time, cybernetics, and regressive eye movements
in reading. Proc. XVth International Congr. of Psychol.,
Brussels 1957, pp. 12~27. Amsterdam: North-Holland
Publishing.
Letter to Psychology Department. Princeton Alumni Weekly, 59:5.
1960
The challenge of safety in a changing world: The "unchanging"
nature of man (Address at President's Conference on Occu-
pational Safety, March 1, 1960~. News from The President's
Conference on Occupational Safety, pp. 1-8. Wash., D.C.: U.S.
Govt. Print. Off.
Evidence from the prenatal and early postnatal behavior of
organisms concerning the concepts of local sign. Symposia. Pro-
ceedings of the XVIth International Congress of Psychology (organized
under the auspices of the International Union of Scientific Psy-
chology by the German Society of Psychology in Bonn, July 31
to August 6, 1960), pp. 85-86. Amsterdam: North-Holland
Publishing.
1961
Absolutes, relativism, and the scientific psychology- of human
nature. In: Relativism and the Study of Man, ed. H. Schoeck and
J. W. Wiggins, pp. 1-22. Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand.
The new museum of history and technology, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, Washington. Museum, 14:232-35.
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46
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
Evidence from the prenatal and early postnatal behavior of
organisms concerning the concepts of local sign (Symposia.
XVIth International Congress of Psychology, Bonn, July 31 to
August 6, 1960~. Acta Psychol., Eur. J. Psychol., 19:16~70.
1963
Psychology of animal behavior. Am. Psychol., 18: 112- 13.
What role for the "modern museum?" (Condensed from "The new
role of the museum in American life," 1962, Harvard Today,
pp. 21 - 26.) UNESCO Newsletter, 10:3~.
1964
The early growth of language capacity in the individual. In: New
Directions in the Study of Language, ed. E. H. Lenneberg, pp. l-22,
Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
1965
Evaluation of certain modern techniques for the study of primate
behavior in the wild. Proceedings of the 73d Annual Conven-
tion of the American Psychological Association, pp. 111-12.
1966
The comparative psychology of animal infancy. XVIII Inter-
national Congress of Psychology Abstracts of Communications,
pp. 1~11, Moscow, 1966. (Abstract of Dr. Carmichael's
address, "Animal Infancy: A Comparative Study of the On-
togeny of Behavior," given in the symposium "Ecology and
Ethology in Behavioral Studies" at the XVIIIth International
Congress of Psychology in Moscow.)
1968
Some historical roots of present-day animal psychology. In: Hts-
tor?cal Roots of Contemporary Psychology, ed. B. B. Wolman, N.Y.:
Harper and Row.
Some notes on the past, present, and future of scientific primatol-
ogy (Presidential address, Second International Congress of
Primatology). Atlanta, Gal: Yerkes Regional Primate Research
Center, Emory Univ.
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LEONARD CARMICHAEL 47
1970
The onset and early development of behavior. In: Carmichael's
Manual of Child Psychology, ad ea., ed. P. H. Mussen, vol. 1, pp.
447-563. N.Y.: Wiley.
1972
Man and animal, a new understanding. In: The Marvels of Animal
Behavior, ed. T. B. Allen. Washington, D.C.: National Geo-
graphic Society.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
biographical memoirs
