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7—
Conclusions and Recommendations
Assuming that private industry will take the lead in mainstream
product development and short-term research, the steering committee
presents here recommendations for research that it believes federal
research agencies should encourage.1
Federal initiatives that emphasize long-term goals beyond the
horizon of most commercial efforts and that may thus entail added
risk have the potential to move the whole information technology
enterprise into new modes of thinking and to stimulate discovery of
new technologies for the coming century. Of course, work should
continue in current areas that have demonstrated promise, but the
emphasis here is on opening up new opportunities. Five of the areas
elaborated on under recommendations 2 and 3 in this chapter are
designated for highest-priority attention because of their
potential for contributing to the development of effective
every-citizen interfaces.
Recommendation 1: Break away from 1960s technologies and
paradigms. Major attempts should be made to find new paradigms
for human-machine interaction that employ new modes and media for
input and output and that involve new conceptualizations of
application interfaces.
Needed in the technical community is a period analogous to the
1960s when a variety of paradigms were tried using emerging
technologies of that time. The view then was of a single user
interacting with a single
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terminal using a mouse, menus, and windows to open documents
within a local application. The new view should take into account
the tasks and technologies of the present and should enable a
variety of interactions between humans and machines for
communication, information retrieval, and performance of tasks in
any of a variety of environments. Moreover, new approaches should
enable users to immerse themselves in computer-mediated
interactions and should include the option of involving many humans
and machines in collaborative activities. New paradigms should
emphasize the new role of information technology in society as a
mediator among individuals, groups of individuals, and networked
machines.
The steering committee's first recommendation is a call not to
replace visual interfaces but rather to infuse them with new power
and capability through document-centric design, speech, gesture,
agents, position-aware and pressure-sensitive input devices, touch
screens, and other emerging technologies and techniques. It also
emphasizes bringing to fruition equally important new interface
strategies, such as speech and voice response, that will carry the
power of computing to environments and populations not served
today. Today's interfaces often require too much of a user's vision
and motor control in situations, such as driving, that present
environmental distractions, or they assume physical or other
abilities that many potential users may lack.
Coordinated research across several disciplines is necessary to
develop new technologies and paradigms that address the
psychological, organizational, and societal characteristics of
every citizen. This interdisciplinary research should include the
testing and evaluation of new interface technologies and paradigms
in laboratory or field experiments or other empirical studies
involving people who are representative of the citizenry.
The research agenda should acknowledge that the human-machine
interface is more than screen deep and should consider every aspect
of a person's experience in using computing and communications.
People should be able to concentrate on the tasks or purposes for
which they are using applications and should experience the
interface as an aid rather than an obstacle to achieving success.
People should experience a human-problem domain interaction rather
than a human-machine interaction.
Several technological and design constraints should be
considered in developing a research agenda:
•
Architectures are needed for interfaces that have
wide spectrum and are easily learnable. Such systems should have
simple and semantically obvious commands so that novices can use
them immediately. They also should have many levels of increasingly
sophisticated capabilities
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that can be learned incrementally,
so that people can move gracefully into more advanced and efficient
uses. Such systems could be used in very sophisticated ways by
experienced users.
•
Systems should support modality and medium
independence. Research should be fostered to enable anytime,
anywhere, anyone interfaces that enable people to interact with
systems using whatever modalities and media are available and
convenient at a given time (consistent with the functions being
performed). Such interfaces would support the goals of (1)
ubiquitous and nomadic access so that a user can communicate on the
road, down the hall from the office, calling in via telephone, and
so forth; (2) equipment and communications system independence-use
of low versus high bandwidth, one medium (e.g., audio, video, text)
versus another, and so on; and (3) user ability independence, with
special concern for people with disabilities and for the changes in
abilities that typically accompany aging.
•
Human-machine interfaces should support group
(multiperson and multimachine) activities that are work oriented,
social, or conducted for other purposes; the groups could be
formal, established, or short term and ad hoc. In particular,
interfaces should support communities of practice in which many
individuals can participate, each contributing incrementally. To
build interfaces that provide such support requires further
development of theories of dialogue, theories of group behavior,
and theories of joint planning and problem solving.
•
Interfaces to the national information
infrastructure should treat the two directions of communications-to
and from individual citizens-more evenhandedly. Historically, with
respect to elements of the NII such as broadcast television,
citizens have been passive consumers of information. The evolving
NII opens prospects for systems and interfaces that provide more
flexibility in who can send and receive information, from what
locations, and in what manner, as well as more flexibility and ease
for people to move between communications- and information-centric
activities.
•
Information resources should have more attractive
means of entry than those available so far. Two possibilities that
could merit further research include (1) the concept of
hyper-television that enables a viewer to pursue a presented object
or event into cyberspace or (2) electronic encyclopedias with
ubiquitous pointers into electronic libraries and other
sources.
•
Methods are needed that enable citizens to achieve
the security and privacy they desire. Security-related features can
be inconvenient to use; better interfaces could lower the barriers
that have deterred their use historically.
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Recommendation 2: Invest in the research required to provide
the component subsystems needed for every-citizen interfaces.
Research is needed that is aimed at both making technological
advances and gaining understanding of the human and organizational
capabilities these advances would support.
•
Determine the needs of citizens:
highest priority. Apply available
sociological, psychological, and human-computer interface
methodologies to try to understand the problems and the needs basic
to effective human-machine interaction. Undertake studies to find
the kinds of functionality and interfaces that will be most
important. Such studies may be empirical or historical to determine
what was successful in the past. For example, the usefulness and
success of existing public information access projects, such as the
Library of Congress system, could be examined. Proposed new
technologies could be simulated and measurements made of their
levels of success in real-life situations. Information so gathered
should then guide decisions on what the most important technical
areas are for research emphasis.
•
Input technologies-Explore the
promise of speech recognition and associated natural language
processing: highest priority. Do the work
necessary to open up speech as a viable input for as many new uses
as possible. The steering committee is impressed that the range of
potential applications for spoken input is tremendous, especially
for hands-busy, eyes-busy situations; telephone applications; and
differently abled persons. This need, coupled with the rate of
progress in speech recognition, points to the importance of
continued emphasis on this line of research. An important area that
needs more attention is the construction of prototype speech
interactive systems and their measurement and refinement in actual
use.
•
Improve understanding of
computer vision, gesture sensing, and multimodal languages for user
input. Computer vision can be used to
gather data a user may wish to transfer to the network and to keep
the system updated regarding the user's presence and
responsiveness. Gesture recognition could involve the development
of gesture languages and gesture support of multimodal
languages.
•
Measure the effectiveness of all of the above
technologies when used by humans in problem-solving situations.
•
Output
technologies, including eyeglass
displays; flexible, portable, and compact displays; high-resolution
displays; virtual reality; haptic devices; mechanical actuators;
voice and artificial sound; and multimodal generation of output.
Develop display technologies to match human vision. Create audio
output matched to the dynamic range of human hearing. Measure the
effectiveness of these technologies in a systematic program to
evaluate their relative strengths for human users.
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
virtual reality
Page 196
•
Ensure modality and medium
independence: highest priority. Media
independence and modality independence are goals that, to this
time, have not been extensively researched and, in the new context,
should be-for nomadic systems, for low-cost systems, and for people
with disabilities. Develop mechanisms that enable translations
between internal machine representations of information and various
human representations (e.g., visual, audio, haptic). Research in
this area will encourage the use of a common machine representation
that can be flexibly translated into or from any available modes or
media. Determine human multimedia and multimodal communications
capabilities. Enumerate and prioritize human capabilities to
modulate energy (as described in Chapter 3).
•
Agent
technologies. An important option for
delivering services to users will involve agent technologies that
interact with people to help determine their needs and then select
domain-appropriate mechanisms to respond. The required technologies
include traditional computer science mechanisms (such as those
needed for database retrieval) and artificial intelligence
capabilities (including representation of concepts and reasoning).
An array of research topics needs to be addressed, including
acquisition of user requests, user modeling, problem solving, and
methodologies for summarizing and presenting internally stored
data.
•
Network access
devices. A large variety of devices are
needed, including mobile terminals, inexpensive minimalist systems,
and full multimedia systems with virtual reality capabilities. The
steering committee expects that industry will perform most of this
work.
Recommendation 3: Encourage research on systems-level design and
development of human-machine interfaces that support multiperson,
multimachine groups as well as individuals.
•
Develop theories and
architectures for collaboration: highest priority. Develop theories of collaboration and problem solving.
Develop architectures for networked people and machines that enable
mutual awareness, easy communication across space and time, and
individual and joint contributions to common goals. Provide ways to
support community building and other social aspects of
communication. Theories of collaboration have not been well
developed historically, and the advent of networking makes this an
important new priority for research.
•
Human-centered design
methodologies. Continue the study of
human behavior in the use of technology for problem solving and the
design of systems for improved productivity. Investigate the social
effects of different interface choices, particularly the ways in
which different presentation and communications choices affect
people's interactions with media. To obtain feedback and to
facilitate efforts at improvement, encourage
Page 197
social science research into how
well the public is being served by such technology.
•
Test proposed new designs:
highest priority. Build experimental
human-machine systems, for individual users or groups, using
proposed technologies or simulations of them. Test, refine, and
install them in applications environments, and measure their
effectiveness. Industry, under the pressure of competition, has in
recent years tended to minimize user testing in favor of quickly
getting products to customers. Marketplace success has become the
de facto test for usability by humans. Unfortunately, this approach
does not lead to the kind of understanding that enables reasoned
design of useful devices. Better understanding gained from testing
and evaluation is needed to achieve breakthroughs to new paradigms,
and to address the needs of differently abled individuals whose
market buying power may be inferior to that of majority
groups.
Note
1. In addition to supporting research, the government can
encourage forward-looking approaches to accessibility for every
citizen to the national information infrastructure by requiring
adequate development processes and evaluation in the procurement
and use of systems for public service facilities under government
control.
Page 198
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PART II
Background Paper
PART I I
BACKGROUND PAPER
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