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More Than Screen Deep
Toward Every-Citizen Interfaces to the
Nation's Information Infrastructure
Toward an Every-Citizen Interface to the Nation's
Information Infrastructure Steering Committee
Computer Science and Telecommunications Board
Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and
Applications
National Research Council
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C. 1997
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Page ii
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was
approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council,
whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy
of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute
of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the
report were chosen for their special competences and with regard
for appropriate balance. This report has been reviewed by a group
other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report
Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of
Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of
Medicine.
Support for this project was provided by the National Science
Foundation under Grant No. IRI-9529473. Any opinions, findings,
conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this material are
those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of
the National Science Foundation.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
More than screen deep: toward every-citizen interfaces to the
nation's information infrastructure / Toward an Every-Citizen
Interface to the Nation's Information Infrastructure Steering
Committee, Computer Science and Telecommunications Board,
Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and Applications,
National Research Council. p. cm. Summary report from a workshop
held in August 1996. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN
0-309-06357-4 (pbk.: acid-free paper)1. User interfaces (Computer
systems)—Congresses. 2. Human-computer
interaction—Congresses. 3. Information
superhighway—United States—Congresses. I. National
Research Council (U.S.).Toward an Every-Citizen Interface to the
Nation's Information Infrastructure Steering
Committee.QA76.9.U83M67 1997303.48'3-dc21
97-21211
Additional copies of this report are available from National
Academy Press, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Lockbox 285,
Washington, D.C. 20055; (800)624-6242 or (202)334-3313(in the
Washington metropolitan area); Internet, http://www.nap.edu
Copyright 1997 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights
reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
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Page iii
Toward An Every-Citizen Interface To The Nation's Information
Infrastructure Steering Committee
ALAN W. BIERMANN, Duke University, Chair
TORA BIKSON, RAND Corporation
THOMAS DEFANTI, University of
Illinois at Chicago
GERHARD FISCHER, University of Colorado
BARBARA J. GROSZ, Harvard University
THOMAS LANDAUER, University of Colorado
JOHN MAKHOUL, BBN Corporation
BRUCE TOGNAZZINI, Healtheon Corporation
GREGG VANDERHEIDEN, University of Wisconsin
STEPHEN WEINSTEIN, NEC America Inc.
Staff
MARJORY S. BLUMENTHAL, Director
JOHN M. GODFREY, Research Associate (until January 31, 1997)
GAIL E. PRITCHARD, Project Assistant (until December 13,
1996)
SYNOD BOYD, Project Assistant (from May 21, 1997)
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Page iv
Computer Science And Telecommunications Board
DAVID D. CLARK, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Chair
FRANCES E. ALLEN, IBM T.J. Watson Research Center
JEFF DOZIER, University of California at Santa Barbara
SUSAN L. GRAHAM, University of California at Berkeley
JAMES GRAY, Microsoft Corporation
BARBARA J. GROSZ, Harvard University
PATRICK HANRAHAN, Stanford University
JUDITH HEMPEL, University of California at San Francisco
DEBORAH A. JOSEPH, University of Wisconsin
BUTLER W. LAMPSON, Microsoft Corporation
EDWARD D. LAZOWSKA, University of Washington
BARBARA H. LISKOV, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
JOHN MAJOR, Qualcomm Inc.
ROBERT L. MARTIN, AT&T Network Systems
DAVID G. MESSERSCHMITT, University of California at Berkeley
CHARLES L. SEITZ, Myricom Inc.
DONALD SIMBORG, KnowMed Systems Inc.
LESLIE L. VADASZ, Intel Corporation
MARJORY S. BLUMENTHAL, Director
HERBERT S. LIN, Senior Staff Officer
JERRY R. SHEEHAN, Staff Officer
JULIE LEE, Administrative Assistant
SYNOD BOYD, Project Assistant
LISA L. SHUM, Project Assistant
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Page v
Commission On Physical Sciences, Mathematics, And
Applications
ROBERT J. HERMANN, United Technologies Corporation,
Co-chair
W. CARL LINEBERGER, University of Colorado, Co-chair
PETER M. BANKS, Environmental Research Institute of Michigan
LAWRENCE D. BROWN, University of Pennsylvania
RONALD G. DOUGLAS, Texas A&M University
JOHN E. ESTES, University of California at Santa Barbara
L. LOUIS HEGEDUS, Elf Atochem North America Inc.
JOHN E. HOPCROFT, Cornell University
RHONDA J. HUGHES, Bryn Mawr College
SHIRLEY A. JACKSON, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
KENNETH H. KELLER, University of Minnesota
KENNETH I. KELLERMANN, National Radio Astronomy Observatory
MARGARET G. KIVELSON, University of California at Los
Angeles
DANIEL KLEPPNER, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
JOHN KREICK, Sanders, a Lockheed Martin Company
MARSHA I. LESTER, University of Pennsylvania
THOMAS A. PRINCE, California Institute of Technology
NICHOLAS P. SAMIOS, Brookhaven National Laboratory
L.E. SCRIVEN, University of Minnesota
SHMUEL WINOGRAD, IBM T.J. Watson Research Center
CHARLES A. ZRAKET, MITRE Corporation (retired)
NORMAN METZGER, Executive Director
Page vi
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit,
self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in
scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance
of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare.
Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in
1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the
federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce
Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964,
under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a
parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in
its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing
with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for
advising the federal government. The National Academy of
Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting
national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes
the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. William A. Wulf is
president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the
National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent
members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy
matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts
under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences
by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal
government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of
medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is
president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National
Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of
science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering
knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in
accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the
Council has become the principal operating agency of both the
National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of
Engineering in providing services to the government, the public,
and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is
administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of
Medicine. Dr. Bruce Alberts and Dr. William A. Wulf are chairman
and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research
Council.
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The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-per-
petuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engi-
neering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology
and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter
granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that
requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical
matters. Dr. Bruce Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sci-
ences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under
the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organiza-
tion of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and
in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of
Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The Na-
tional Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs
aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and
recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. William A. Wulf
is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National
Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appro-
priate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the
health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to
the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an
adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify
issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is
president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Acad-
emy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and
technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and
advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general
policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the princi-
pal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the
National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the govern-
ment, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The
Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of
Medicine. Dr. Bruce Alberts and Dr. William A. Wulf are chairman and
vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.
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Page vii
Preface
The spread of information systems and, in particular,
information infrastructure throughout the economy and social fabric
raises questions about the technology's ease of use by different
people, from those with limited technical know-how to those with
various disabilities to the so-called power users who push for
higher performance on many dimensions. In response to a request
from the National Science Foundation, the Computer Science and
Telecommunications Board (CSTB) of the National Research Council
convened a steering committee to evaluate and suggest fruitful
directions for progress in user interfaces to computing and
communications systems. The charge to the steering committee is
best presented by quoting from the project prospectus, which called
for a workshop to "determine the state-of-the-art of research in CS
[computer science] and other disciplines, identify the questions
most important to investigate next ..., identify what is known from
research on the longer-term problems that will aid in near-term
human-computer communications design, and identify important
long-term research issues." The steering committee met in March
1996 to plan a two-day workshop that was held in August 1996 (the
agenda and participants are listed in Appendix A) and then met
again in September 1996 to plan the structure and format of this
summary report. It relied primarily on electronic mail for its
subsequent interactions, including electronic mail with the larger
set of workshop participants.
The workshop participants, like the steering committee, included
experts from multiple disciplines-computing and communications
software
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Page viii
and hardware, psychology, sociology, human factors, design, and
economics-and experts experienced with applications in specific
domains (e.g., health and education) and with the needs and
experiences of a wide range of subpopulations (e.g., people with
physical disabilities; those with low-income and/or limited
education). Whether from a computer science, social science, or
application-domain perspective, all had experience working with a
variety of computing and communications system users, and all were
asked to draw on their practical experience. It was anticipated
that viewing earlier, more technically focused treatments of user
interfaces through the lens of a familiar life domain would reveal
neglected issues, unidentified challenges, unexpected convergences,
or new directions for research or action. The participants pooled
their skills to make suggestions concerning how to build interfaces
that will enable the broadest-possible spectrum of citizenry to
interact easily and effectively with the nation's information
infrastructure to obtain as many services as is reasonable.
The workshop demonstrated the value of assembling a very diverse
group of experts embodying many complementary perspectives; it also
demonstrated how differently people in different disciplines-or
people with different subspecialties within a given
discipline-perceive, analyze, and discuss the experiences and needs
of users of computing and communications systems. That recognition
implies that the workshop should be seen as part of a process of
interdisciplinary convening and exchange that should continue. That
process may require special effort and encouragement through
activities like the one responsible for this report.
The role of the steering committee was not only to organize the
workshop but also to sift through the many inputs to distill key
themes, ideas, and recommendations. The results compose Part I of
the present report, which is a synthesis and distillation primarily
of workshop-related inputs and which focuses on research
opportunities. Its contribution lies in its integration of a very
diverse set of perspectives to illuminate directions for research,
with emphasis on directions that blend multiple disciplines. Part I
does not purport to be a comprehensive treatise on either user
interfaces or the entire set of problems inherent in the challenge
of broadening public access to the national information
infrastructure (NII), nor does it focus on the important subset of
problems associated with NII applications in support of the rights
and responsibilities of citizenship. For those seeking more detail
and a mapping of ideas to sources, position papers contributed by
workshop participants (several containing bibliographies) are
included in Part II. Additional position papers can be found on the
World Wide Web at http://www2.nas.edu/CSTBWEB).
The steering committee is grateful to the many people who
contributed to its deliberations and to this report. The workshop
participants
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Page ix
generated a lively set of discussions and commented on early
drafts derived from panel discussions. The steering committee is
particularly grateful to those who also contributed position
statements (see Part II), brief outlines of the state of the art in
specific areas (distributed with the workshop program to
participants), and comments on a draft of this report. H. Rex
Hartson (Virginia Polytechnic Institute), who was unable to attend
the workshop, generously supplied a special overview of the user
interface landscape, which is the lead segment of Part II. Terry
Winograd (Stanford University), Ben Shneiderman (University of
Maryland), and Nathan Shedroff (vivid studios), who were also
unable to attend, provided position papers.
Several workshop participants and a few individuals with no
formal participation in the project provided extraordinary inputs
to this report. Austin Henderson (Apple Computer) made significant
contributions to the committee's thinking about collaboration and
information dimensions. Johanna Moore (University of Pittsburgh)
assisted in the revision of the discussion on agent technology by
collecting input from other participants and integrating it with
her own suggestions. Candace Sidner (Lotus Development Corporation)
and C. Raymond Perrault (SRI International) contributed additional
insights, references, and text describing natural language
understanding and processing. Black Hannaford (University of
Washington) contributed text describing commercial and research
trends relating to haptic and tactile interfaces, and David Warner
(Syracuse University) provided input on medical applications for
such technology. Julia Hirschberg (AT&T Research Laboratories)
and Pierre Isabelle (Center for Information Technology Innovation)
provided state-of-the-art reviews for text-to-speech synthesis and
machine translation, respectively. Jason Leigh (University of
Illinois at Chicago) supplied a substantial part of the graphics
and virtual reality reference list. CommerceNet
(http://www.commerce.net) and Nielsen Media Research
(http://www.nielsenmedia.com/commercenet) generously provided
results of their Internet Demographics Survey. Michael North (North
Communications) and Marc Regberg (Venture Development Corporation)
supplied reference materials on kiosks and their uses. David
Crocker (Brandenburg Consulting) created an electronic mail
discussion list that supported post-workshop exchanges by the
workshop participants and the steering committee.
The anonymous reviewers of this report provided an invaluable,
if sometimes confounding, sanity check on the steering committee's
early efforts to synthesize its impressions and conclusions. The
range of comments, criticisms, and suggestions was as broad as the
other inputs to the project, but collectively they guided the
steering committee in tightening and reinforcing its
presentation.
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Page x
John Godfrey, a CSTB research associate until February 1997, put
considerable effort into organizing the workshop and working with
the steering committee as it developed this report. Rob Cheng, a
graduate student at the Massachussetts Institute of Technology,
prepared background research and other materials for the workshop
as a summer intern with CSTB. Finally, the committee thanks Gary
Strong, of the National Science Foundation, for both making this
project possible and providing ongoing encouragement.
Alan W. Biermann, Chair
Toward an Every-Citizen Interface to the Nation's Information
Infrastructure
Steering Committee
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Page xi
Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1
PART I
1 Introduction
9
2 Requirements for Effective Every-Citizen
Interfaces
21
3 Input/Output Technologies: Current
Status and Research Needs
71
4 Design and Evaluation
121
5 Communication and Collaboration
154
6 Agents and Systems Intelligence
180
7 Conclusions and Recommendations
192
Bibliography
198
PART II
BACKGROUND PAPER
Trends in Human-Computer Interaction
Research and Development
H. Rex Hartson, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute
221
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Page xii
POSITION PAPERS
On Interface
Specifics
An Embedded, Invisible
Every-Citizen Interface
243
Mark Weiser, Xerox Palo Alto Research
Center
Intelligent Multimedia Interfaces
for ''Each" Citizen
246
Mark T. Maybury, Mitre Corporation
Interfaces for Understanding
252
Nathan Shedroff, vivid studios
Interspace and an Every-Citizen
Interface to the National Information Infrastructure
260
Terry Winograd, Stanford
University
Mobile Access to the Nation's
Information Infrastructure
265
Daniel P. Siewiorek, Carnegie Mellon
University
Ordinary Citizens and the
National Information Infrastructure
271
Bruce Tognazzini, Healtheon
Corporation
Spoken-Language Technology
279
Ronald A. Cole, Oregon Graduate Institute
of Science and Technology
Toward an Every-Citizen
Interface
284
Steven K. Feiner, Columbia
University
Nomadicity, Disability Access,
and the Every-Citizen Interface
297
Gregg C. Vanderheiden, University of
Wisconsin-Madison
On Functions
Computer-Mediated
Collaboration
307
Loren Terveen, AT&T Research
Creating Interfaces Founded on
Principles of Discourse Communication and Collaboration
315
Candace Sidner, Lotus Development
Corporation
Digital Maps
322
Lance McKee and Louis Hecht, Open GIS
Consortium Inc.
Gathering and Integrating
Information in the National Information Infrastructure
330
Craig A. Knoblock, University of Southern
California
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Page xiii
Integrating Audiences and
Users
334
John Richards, Turner Le@rning
Inc.
Intelligent Agents for
Information
341
Katia P. Sycara, Carnegie Mellon
University
Intelligent Information
Agents
345
Johanna D. Moore, University of
Pittsburgh
Resource Discovery and Resource
Delivery
354
Kent Wittenburg, Bellcore
Search and Publishing
359
Robert A. Virzi, GTE Laboratories
Incorporated
Security
363
Stephen Kent, BBN Corporation
Research to Support Widespread
Access to Digital Libraries and Government Information and
Services
372
Ben Shneiderman, University of
Maryland
On Application
Areas
Community Computing Projects
375
Aki Helen Namioka, Computer Professionals
for Social Responsibility
Lifelong Learning
382
Gerhard Fischer, University of Colorado,
Boulder
Supporting Learning in
Communities of Practice
389
Charles Cleary, Northwestern
University
On Selected Population
Groups
Extending Knowledge Access to
Underserved Citizens
395
Wallace Feurzeig, BBN Systems and
Technologies
Electronic Access to Services for
Low-Income Populations
403
Adam Porter, University of
Maryland
Access for People with
Disabilities
407
Larry Goldberg, WGBH Educational
Foundation
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Page xiv
On Key Processes
Cross-Disciplinary,
Social-Context Research
411
John Leslie King, University of
California, Irvine
Audio Access to the National
Information Infrastructure
417
John C. Thomas, NYNEX Science and
Technology
APPENDIXES
A Workshop Agenda and
Participants
425
B Steering Committee Members'
Biographies
429
