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Educating One & All: Students with Disabilities and Standards-Based Reform
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Index
Accommodations
in assessments, 33, 34, 61, 65, 69, 85, 106, 108, 109, 112, 146, 152-153, 159, 160, 170-182, 187, 191, 204, 256, 257, 274-275
for cognitive disabilities, 2, 65, 108, 110-111
content, 172 n.11
costs, 190
credentialing and, 123
defined, 153, 171-172, 249
designing and evaluating, 85, 177-179, 257
determinants of need for, 111
disability status and, 146, 177-178
IEP documentation of, 59, 61, 159-161
for learning disabilities, 61, 106, 274-275
least restrictive environment, 59
legal basis for, 7, 24-25, 26, 50, 61, 170, 187, 189
logic of, 173, 176-177, 260-261
number of students needing, 111
and predictive validity, 180
presentation changes, 29 n.8, 106, 159
purpose of, 7, 176
recommendations, 204
research evidence about, 179-182
response-mode changes, 29 n.8, 159
and score comparability, 181-182
severity of disability and, 107, 110-111, 153
state policies, 28-29, 159-160
timing changes, 159, 177, 180, 181, 183
validity of, 165-173, 176-182, 190-192, 193
Accountability
assessment used for, 2, 28, 40, 151, 154-157, 183-184
comparison group, 154
defined, 249
enforcement of, 156
fiscal, 49
forms, 151
in general education, 151-152
IEPs and, 54, 56, 147-148, 150, 151-152
measures, 61
overview, 154-155
participation of students with disabilities in, 6-7, 54, 60-61, 71 , 158-161, 192, 254-255
recommendations, 7, 9-10, 197, 200-201, 202-203
reporting of scores and, 185
school, 28, 155
in special education, 49, 151-152, 255
in standards-based reform, 1-2, 3, 27, 28, 65
state variations in, 27, 28, 155
student, 28, 168
teacher, 155
time frame for information, 154-155
units of, 28, 154, 168, 183-184
and validity of assessment inferences, 167
Achievement and outcomes of students.
See also Performance of students with disabilities
academic credits vs vocational credits, 135
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''aging out" of school, 94
cohort, point-estimate models, 266-273
content coverage and, 30, 136, 149
curriculum and, 30, 118-121, 132, 136
as dimension of disability, 77-78
disability status and, 4, 95, 97, 99, 101, 102, 133, 264-265, 268-273, 274, 275
educational expectations of parents and, 101-102, 267
elementary school data, 97, 262-275
employment, 4, 54, 94, 98-99, 101
family attitudes/behavior and, 100, 101, 102, 111, 267, 268-272, 273, 274
gender differences, 264, 265, 267, 274
high school graduation, 4, 54, 94, 95-96
independent living, 101
intelligence and, 78-79
learning, 32
model of outcomes, 119
multivariate estimates of, 266-275
parental involvement and, 6, 100-102, 111, 268-272, 274
point estimates of, 263-265
post-school outcomes, 4, 13, 98-99, 118-121, 252
postsecondary education, 4, 54, 98-99, 101, 118-121
prior, 98, 102, 268-272, 273, 275
Prospects study, 97, 262-275
race/ethnicity and, 264, 265, 267, 268-272, 274
rates of growth, 97
research needs, 97-98, 112
socioeconomic status and, 95, 100, 264, 266-267, 268-272
of special education and, 96-98
trends, 263-265
value-added models, 273-275
Adaptive behavior, 78, 79, 107
Advocacy, parental role, 6, 62-63, 102-105, 147, 204-205
African Americans, 88-89, 90, 104, 264, 265, 267, 268-272, 274
Alabama, 76
Alaska, 138
American Association for the Advancement of Science, 31, 41 n.16, 117
American Federation of Teachers, 27
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 50-51, 52, 68, 174, 187, 189 , 249
Appropriate education
balancing of benefits approach, 58-59
constitutionally adequate public education system, 51
content standards and, 6, 140-141, 145-147, 150
defined, 61, 140, 195-196, 250
educational benefit criteria, 58
entitlement to, 56-59
equality of opportunity approach, 58
IDEA provisions, 3, 46, 58, 61, 92, 107, 140
IEP and, 140
least restrictive environment, 58, 59, 60, 92
parental role, 62-63
related services, 58
requirements for, 140-141
Rowley standard, 57-59, 62, 69, 140
in standards-based system, 59, 65, 140
state laws, 51-52
Arizona Student Assessment Program, 42
Asian Americans/Pacific Islanders, 88-89, 264, 265, 267, 268-272, 274
Assessment.
See also Reporting of assessment results;
Tests
accommodations in, 33, 34, 61, 65, 69, 85, 106, 108, 109, 112, 152 -153, 159-160, 170-182, 183, 187, 191, 192-193, 257, 274-275
for accountability, 2, 28, 40, 151, 154-157
administration frequency, 156-157
alternate, 3, 172-173, 174-175, 187, 189, 249
comparability of performance, 33, 168-169, 172, 257
computer-based, 183
consequences attached to, 155, 157, 167, 184, 258
construct-disability relationship, 170-171
content standards linked with, 3, 25-26, 28, 45, 155
context-dependence of, 169-170
costs, 40, 189-190
design, 7-8, 33, 40, 65, 152, 154, 155, 161-162, 182-183
differential item functioning, 181
exemption/exclusion from, 2, 6, 96, 152-153, 191-192, 256, 258
fairness of, 7, 167-168, 184-189
formats/approaches, 3, 27-28, 32, 37, 39-40, 64, 80, 157, 161
item response theory, 182-183
large-scale, 27-28, 37, 70, 152, 155, 161-190, 251
legal frameworks for, 25-26, 162, 174, 186-189, 193
out-of-level testing, 172
participation of students with disabilities in, 24-25, 34, 54, 71, 153, 158-190, 192-193, 254-255, 267, 272
performance assessment, 32, 161-165
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politics of, 39 n.14
portfolio system, 32, 34, 163, 172-173, 174, 175
prior achievement controlled for, 98, 268-272, 273, 275
problems associated with, 32, 39 n.14, 177-179, 266, 268-272
purposes, 155-156, 187
recommendations, 197-204, 205, 210
and referrals to special education, 159
resource implications, 189-190
sampling error, 163-164, 167
scoring, 28, 34, 39, 163, 168, 275
for special education eligibility, 70-71, 77-78, 154, 167, 178
in standards-based reform, 152, 155-157, 160-161
state guidelines, 27-28, 155, 158
student-by-task interactions, 164
task difficulty, 164-165
task variance, 164
technology and, 183, 255
uses, 27, 32, 152, 155, 156, 166-167, 187
Autism, 71, 72, 87, 93
Behavior. See Adaptive behavior; specific behaviors
Belgium, 30
Business Roundtable, 31, 45
California education reforms, 41, 143, 165
Learning Assessment System, 37-38, 39 n.14, 190
standards development, 38, 39
Classification of disabilities.
See also Identification of students with disabilities;
specific categories
and accommodation design, 177-178
and assessments, 178
and comparability of studies, 92, 178
defining disability, 71-82
dimension, 77-80
eligibility policy, 54-56, 64, 82-86
federal regulatory definitions, 71-75
imprecision of categories, 83-86, 171, 177-178, 255
and placement decisions, 90-94, 178-179
severity, 4, 55, 75-77, 110-111
social stigma of labeling, 34, 82-83, 184-185, 254
state variation in policies, 4, 76, 83-84, 110
taxonomy changes, 4, 85-86, 178
and treatment decisions, 84, 85
variability in rates, 75
Cognitive disabilities
accommodations, 2, 65, 108, 110-111
content standards, 137, 146
definition, 79 n.3, 250
instruction strategies, 125-129
mild, 4, 84, 108, 111
severe, 25, 110-111, 137, 169
Colorado, 115, 139, 144, 155
Communication skills and language development
cognitive disabilities, 126, 129
as dimension of disability, 79-80
Connecticut, 29 n.8, 76
Constructivism, 117-118, 126-128, 129, 149-150, 250
Content standards.
See also Curriculum
abstract applications, 116-117
and achievement/outcomes, 136
addressing students with disabilities in, 25, 137-138
alternate, 147-148, 201-202
and appropriate education, 5, 140-141, 145-147, 150
assessments linked with, 25-26, 28, 45
benefits of, 138-137
controversies, 37-38
criteria, 36-37
decision-making process, 6, 145-147, 150
defined, 3, 22, 250
definitional process, 36-39
educational implications, 140-149
IASA, 25-26
and IEP process, 138, 147-148
implementation in individual schools and classrooms, 40-44
instructional implications, 5, 40-44, 114, 115-116, 117-118, 146, 149-150
and learning, 138-139
legal implications, 140-150
purposes, 114
recommendations, 197-199, 201-202
resource implications, 114, 142-145
severity of disability and, 146-147
state variation in approaches, 27, 114-117, 137-138, 149
and teacher education and professional development, 143-144
Council for Exceptional Children, 35, 255-256
Council of Chief State School Officers, 28, 35, 115, 117, 138, 144 , 258
Council of Great City Schools, 115, 258-259
Credentialing, 121, 122-123
Criterion of ultimate functioning, 119-120, 128-129
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Curriculum.
See also Content standards;
General education curriculum
and achievement/outcomes, 30, 118-121, 149
consensus on, 37, 66-67
coverage, 30
international comparisons, 30, 138-139
student participation in, 129, 132-136
Curriculum development
challenges, 65
special education, 35
standards-based reform, 27, 33
participants, 44, 65, 66
time, 33
Deaf-blindness, 71, 72, 80, 81, 88, 93
Deafness, 71, 72, 80, 81, 99, 109, 131, 273 n.5
Disabilities.
See also Classification of disabilities;
specific classifications
age trends, 86-87
characteristics related to, 88-90
defined, 250
gender distribution, 88
medical model of, 80-81
prevalence of, 4, 76, 86, 88-90
social system model, 81-82
Education of All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, 250.
See also Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
Elementary and Secondary Education Act, 25, 253.
See also Improving America's Schools Act
Eligibility for special education.
See also Identification of students with disabilities
assessment for, 70-71, 77-78, 154, 167
criteria, 69, 75, 85
defined, 250
poverty threshold, 26
severity of disability and, 75, 107
taxonomy and, 85
and treatment decisions, 84
Emotional disturbance/disability, 55, 79, 97, 99, 102, 260, 265, 271-273.
See also Serious emotional disturbance
Employment
competitive, 98, 99, 101, 250
disability status and, 98-99, 120
high school graduation/diploma and, 98, 121, 122-123
outcomes of special education students, 4, 54, 94, 98-99
parental involvement in education and, 101
preparation programs, 120-121
transition services, 119, 149
Family.
See also Parental involvement
attitudes, and achievement, 268-272, 273
single-parent households, 90, 105
status, and achievement, 100, 266, 268-272
France, 30
Functional academics, 79
Functional life skills, 146
Gender differences
achievement test data, 264, 265, 267, 274
in disability status, 88
math scores, 274
General education curriculum
course-taking patterns, 134-136
IEP connection to, 4-5, 56, 59
as least restrictive environment, 59
participation time of students with disabilities, 56, 90-91, 109, 129, 132-136, 254-255
secondary school, 134-136
Georgia, 29 n.8, 76
Goals 2000: Educate America Act
assessments, 24-25, 174
charge to committee under, 2
conditions for grants, 23, 26
content standards, 22
controversies, 23-24, 259
defined, 251
National Education Goals, 14-15, 23
opportunity-to-learn standards, 23-24
parental involvement goals, 23
performance standards, 22
professional education, 143
systemic approach to reform, 45
Hawaii, 76
Health and physical education standards, 116
Hearing impairment, 71, 72, 75, 80, 81, 88, 93, 97, 99, 134, 273 n.5
High school graduation
academic credit requirements, 134
course-taking patterns and, 136
credentialing issue, 121, 122-123
differentiated diplomas, 96, 121, 122
and employment, 98, 121, 122-123
litigation, 123
minimum competency tests, 32, 61, 123, 156, 187-188
recommendations, 206-207
special education students, 4, 13, 54, 94, 95-96, 112
Hispanic Americans, 88-89, 264, 265, 268-272, 274
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Identification of students with disabilities.
See also Classification of disabilities
criteria for, 4, 54-56, 65, 110
emotional disorders, 260
factors affecting, 75
fiscal incentives/disincentives, 55, 71
process, 69-71
race/ethnicity and, 88-89, 90, 104
socioeconomic status and, 89-90
teacher referrals, 70, 71, 75
Illinois, 188
Implementation of standards-based reform
barriers to, 3, 8, 64-65, 69
classroom instruction, 41-44
content standards, 36-39, 40-44, 140-141
disabilities and, 34-36, 69
funding incentives, 34
individualization, 35-36, 40-44
legal requirements, 140-141
performance standards, 36-39, 140
personnel requirements, 142, 145
recommendations, 10, 197-208
teachers, 40-44, 143-144
Improving America's Schools Act (IASA)
accommodations and adaptations, 26
assessments and reports, 25-26
content standards, 25-26
defined, 251
Title I programs, 2, 25-26, 165, 174, 253, 262
Individualized education program (IEP).
See also Appropriate education
accommodations, 59, 61, 159-160
and accountability, 54, 56, 147-148, 150, 151-152, 160
assessment participation documented in, 158, 160, 188, 256
connection to general education curriculum, 56, 260
content standards and, 138, 147-148
defined, 3, 47, 251
diplomas, 96, 112
and IDEA implementation, 56-57
instruction and curricular planning, 119, 160-161, 256
litigation, 63
parental involvement in, 6, 56, 62, 64, 102-105, 111, 147, 255, 256
process, 56, 59, 64, 92, 102-103, 111, 147-148, 195-196, 258-259
recommendations, 9, 199-200
rights to, 3, 70, 108, 195-196, 257
shortcomings, 56, 65, 136-137, 257, 258-259
and standards-based reform, 13, 106, 108, 136-137, 255
teachers' views on, 56
team, 59, 158, 159-160, 251
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).
See also Individualized education program
appropriate education under, 3, 46, 58, 61, 92, 107, 140
assessment requirements, 187, 193
basic requirements, 46, 58, 68, 189
defined, 251
definitions of disabilities, 54, 71-75, 258
eligibility criteria, 69-71
funding/appropriations, 26, 47, 54
goals, 47, 53
implementation, 47, 53-64
limitations, 259, 260
litigation, 57-59
number of children served under, 86 n.4, 186
parental involvement principle, 62-64, 102
placement data collection, 92 n.7
Section 504 compared with, 50
state participation, 47, 50, 51-52
transition services, 119
voluntary participation by states, 47, 50
Instructional practices.
See also Teachers
classification of disability and, 84-85
content standards and, 5, 40-44, 114, 117-118, 139, 149-150
cooperative learning, 132, 133
criterion of ultimate functioning, 119-120, 128-129
effective special education instruction, 5-6, 121, 123-129, 141-142, 149
experiential learning, 139
explicit-conceptualization, 126-129, 141-142, 146, 149
individually referenced decision making in standards-based reform 40-44, 124-125, 129, 133, 141-142, 149
intensive, 125-126, 129, 141-142, 145, 146, 149
Madeline Hunter Methods, 133
mastery learning, 132, 133
materials, 41, 145
skill-and-drill approach, 128, 131, 255
skills-based, 126-129
for students with disabilities, 125-129, 132-133, 141-142
technology for, 130, 131-132, 145
traditional strategies, 40-41
whole-language pedagogy, 38, 132, 133
Intelligence, 78-79,154.
See also Cognitive disabilities
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International comparisons, curriculum coverage, 30, 138-139
Iowa, 138, 155
Japan, 30
Kansas, 28
Kentucky education reforms
accountability system, 169 n.8
applicability to all children, 34, 36, 51-52
assessment program, 28 n.7, 33 n.12, 34, 38, 39, 157, 172-173, 174 , 175, 190, 255
comprehensiveness, 45
content standards, 43, 115, 137
Education Reform Act, 45 n.20, 157
effectiveness, 33 n.12
implementation process, 33, 41, 43-44
professional development, 44, 144
Language arts
instructional practices, 132, 133
standards, 115, 116
testing, 37-38
Language development. See Communication skills and language development
Learning.
See also Achievement and outcomes of students;
Opportunity to learn
constructivist, 117-118, 126-128, 129, 149-150, 250
content standards and, 138-139
cooperative, 132, 133
hierarchy of, 127-128
instructional technology and, 132
IQ-achievement discrepancy criterion, 154
mastery, 132, 133
outcomes, 32, 274
Learning disabilities
accommodations, 61, 106, 274-275
and achievement test scores, 265, 271-273, 274, 275
characteristics, 76-77, 84, 87
and content standards, 146-147
criteria for determining, 74, 75, 78
definition, 73, 75, 78, 81-82
diagnosis, 78, 81, 83
eligibility for special education, 55
and general education courses, 134
instruction and curricular planning, 120, 133
outcomes of students with, 95, 97, 98, 99, 120
and placement decisions, 92, 93
prevalence, 4, 76, 86, 87, 178
race/ethnic trends, 89
social stigma of labeling and, 83
treatment, 84
Least restrictive environment, 3, 58, 59-61, 92, 94, 251
Legal issues
in assessment, 186-189
in content standards, 140-148
for special education, 53-64
Litigation/lawsuits
Alabama Coalition for Equity v. Hunt, 52
Board of Education of Hendrick Hudson Central School District v. Rowley, 57-59, 62, 69, 140
Board of Education, Sacramento City Unified School District v. Holland , 60
Brookhart v. Illinois State Board of Education, 61, 188
Coalition to Save Our Children v. Board of Education, 90
Daniel R.R. v. State Board of Education, 60
Debra P. v. Turlington, 123, 187-188
Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia, 53
Oberti v. Board of Education of Borough of Clementon, 60
Opinion of the Justices of the Alabama Supreme Court, 52
Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, 53
Rose v. Council for Better Education, 52
San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez, 51
Smith v. Robinson, 53
Low-achieving students, 4, 55, 84, 124 n.3, 152, 160, 165
Maine, 138
Maryland education reforms, 33, 36, 165
accommodations, 178
applicability to all children, 36
assessment program, 28 n.6, n.7, 42, 156, 157, 171 n.10, 172-173, 174-175, 176, 178
content standards, 137, 139
professional development, 143, 144
Massachusetts, 63, 76, 155
special education laws51, 54, 64
Mathematics, 38, 41, 274
achievement, 97, 102, 263, 266, 268-272, 273
assessments, 162, 180 n.14, 181
curriculum coverage, 30, 38, 136-137
hierarchy of learning, 127-128
instructional practices, 132, 133
standards, 31, 37, 115-116, 117
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Mental retardation
classification variations, 76, 83
definition, 71, 72, 78
diagnosis, 78, 79, 81, 83
mild, 4, 55, 81, 83, 84, 87
moderate to severe, 81, 87
outcomes of students with, 95, 96, 99
prevalence, 4, 76, 86, 87, 178
in severe multiple disabilities, 77, 109
social stigma of labeling, 82-83
Michigan, 41, 115, 123, 143
Mild disabilities
and academic achievement, 78
classification variations, 76, 87-89
and content standards, 146
identification of, 4, 75, 81
instruction and curricular planning, 120, 126, 131
and participation in standards-based reform, 106-107
race/ethnicity and, 88-90
and special education, 75-77
Minorities, See Race/ethnicity;
specific minorities
Mississippi, 76
Missouri, 35, 143
Moderate disabilities, 77-78
Motor skills, 80, 107, 146
Multiple disabilities, 72, 75, 81, 88, 93, 94, 96, 99, 108-109, 134
National Academy of Sciences, 31
National Assessment of Educational Progress, 90, 132, 137, 157, 181 , 191-192
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 27 n.3, 31, 41 n.16, 117, 118
National Council on Disability, 104, 256
National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS), 91, 95 n.9, 100, 132
National Longitudinal Transitional Study of Special Educational Students (NLTS) , 54, 88, 90, 94-98, 101, 134-136, 252
National Research Council, 82-83, 117, 166
National Science Foundation, 31
Native Americans, 88-89, 104
Nebraska, 139, 155
New Jersey, 51, 76
New Standards Project, 190, 257-258
New York, 76, 123
testing policies, 28 nn.6, 7, 157, 159
North Carolina, 34, 43
Ohio, 28 n.7
Opportunity to learn
content standards and, 140, 147
credentialing and, 123
defined, 23, 252
legal basis for, 189
minimum competency test and, 188-189
recommendations, 10, 204-205
standards, 23-24, 29-30, 141-142
strategies, 12, 24
Oregon, 115
Orthopedic impairment, 73, 75, 88, 93, 97, 99, 273 n.5
Other health impairment, 73, 75, 81, 87, 88, 93, 99, 133, 134, 265
Outcomes. See Achievement and outcomes of students
Parent education, and student achievement, 100, 267, 268-272, 274
Parental expectations, and achievement, 6, 101-102, 111, 267, 268-272, 274
Parental involvement
and achievement, 6, 100-102, 111, 268-272, 274
barriers to participation, 103-104, 111
IDEA requirements, 62-64, 102
in IEP process, 6, 56, 62, 64, 101-105, 111, 147, 255, 256
measures of, 100-101
minority and poverty status and, 6, 104-105, 111, 147
recommendations, 10, 204-205
in special education process, 6, 56, 62-64, 100, 102-105, 257, 259
in standards-based reforms, 63, 100, 111, 255
Participation of students with disabilities
in accountability systems, 54, 60-61, 158-161, 192, 255-256
in assessments, 24-25, 34, 54, 71, 153, 158-190, 192, 254-255, 267 , 272
course-taking in secondary schools, 134-136
definition of, 256-257
in general education curriculum, 56, 90-91, 109, 110, 129, 132-136, 150, 255-256
implications of increases in, 190-192
rationale for, 136-137
recommendations, 197-210
severity of disability and, 80, 107-109, 110-111
special education enrollments, 49, 53-54
time spent in secondary schools, 134
Pennsylvania, 38, 63, 138
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Performance of students with disabilities
comparability of, 168-169
context-dependence of, 169-170
grades, 96-97
measurement of, 39-40, 64, 157;
see also Assessment
Performance standards, 3, 22, 27-28, 36-39, 165, 252
Phonics, 38, 117, 133
Phonological processing, 126, 127
Physical disabilities, 133, 265, 271-272, 273 n.5
Post-school outcomes. See Achievement and outcomes of students
Postsecondary education, 4, 54, 98-99, 101, 120, 169
Prospects study
achievement levels of students, 97, 132, 267-273
cohort, point-estimate models, 266-273
design, 262-263
multivariate estimates of achievement, 266-275
of parental involvement, 100, 101-102
value-added models, 273-275
Public Law 94-142, 46, 47, 52, 62-63, 64.
See also Education of All Handicapped Children Act of 1975
Qualification for special education. See Classification of disabilities;
Identification of students with disabilities
Race/ethnicity
and achievement test data, 264, 265, 267, 268-272, 274
and identification of children with disabilities, 88-89, 90, 104, 258-259
and high school graduation, 95
and parental participation, 6, 104-105, 111, 147
Reading
achievement, 97, 102, 263, 266, 268-272, 273, 274
disability status and, 102, 274
instruction, 38, 126, 127, 133
standards, 116, 117
Recommendations
accountability system, 7, 9-10, 200-201, 202-203
alterations to standards and assessments, 7, 10, 198-199, 201-202, 202-204
assessment, 10, 197-204, 205, 210
design of standards, 9, 197-198, 201-202
guiding principles, 197
IEP process, 9, 199-200
implementation of standards-based reform, 10, 207-208
opportunity to learn, 10, 205-206
outcomes monitoring, 10, 206-207
parental involvement, 10, 204-205
research, 208-210
Rehabilitation Act of 1973, Section 504, 47, 50, 52, 54, 61, 68, 69, 165, 174, 187, 189, 252
Reporting of assessment results
accommodations and, 177, 179, 183, 184
and accountability for students with disabilities, 7, 185
altered assessments, 173, 175
by broad performance levels, 157
classification of disability and, 178
cohort, point-estimate models, 266-273
confidentiality and labeling concerns, 184-185
design of mechanisms for, 7, 184
disaggregation of data, 184, 185-186, 203, 250
exclusion of students with disabilities, 71, 158, 181
flagging, 158, 184-185
measurement error, 167
multivariate estimates of achievement, 266-275
normative, 157
point estimates of achievement, 263-265
recommendations, 200-201, 202-203, 206-207
reliability, 40, 162, 163-165, 185-186, 252, 275
unit of accountability and, 183-184
and use for tracking students with disabilities, 161
validity of inferences, 39, 65, 162, 163, 165-171, 173, 177, 178, 179, 183, 184, 185, 186-187, 253
value-added models, 155, 273-275
Research needs
accommodated testing, 182, 210
achievement of students with disabilities, 97-98, 112
assessments, 193-194, 210
clinical and psychometric, 65
computer technology applications, 209-210
credentialing alternatives, 210
inclusion of students in general education curriculum, 255
instructional methods, 150, 209
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local decision-making processes, 209
recommendations, 208-210
resource implications of reforms, 209
school experiences of students with disabilities, 209
special education models, 209
special education population, 111-112
Resources
content standards and, 114, 142-145
shortages, 2
Science
assessments, 181
curriculum, 30 n.10, 37, 115-116, 117, 137, 139
Second International Mathematics Study (SIMS), 30
Secondary schools
course-taking patterns, 134-136
curricular priorities, 120, 149
time in general education courses, 134-136
Sensory status, 80, 146
Serious emotional disturbance (SED), 83, 84, 87, 93, 95, 133, 134
definition, 73, 75
diagnosis, 79, 81, 83, 84
prevalence, 4, 76, 86, 87
Severe disabilities, 77, 78
and assessments, 153, 169, 174
content standards for, 137, 138, 146
defined, 252
instruction and curricular planning, 119-120, 126, 128-129
participation in standards-based reform, 80, 106, 108-109
Social competencies. See Adaptive behavior
Social functioning, 79, 107, 126, 129
Social stigma, 59, 82-83, 96
Socioeconomic/poverty status
and achievement test scores, 95, 100, 264, 266-267, 268-272
and identification of disabilities, 89-90, 91
and outcomes of students, 95
and parental participation, 6, 104-105, 111, 147
Special education.
See also Individualized education program;
Instruction practices;
specific legislation
accommodations in services, 61, 92-93
accountability in, 49, 151-152, 255
characteristics of students, 86-100, 111-112
costs and financing, 48-49
declassification rates, 70-71
defined, 252
eligibility, 54-55, 69-86
enrollments, 49, 53-54, 71
federal initiatives, 2-3, 46-51
guiding assumptions, 53-64, 113
history of, 52-53
implementation of, 52-64
least restrictive environment, 59-61
legalization of, 63-64, 65
minority overrepresentation in, 88-89, 90, 104, 258-259
National Longitudinal Transitional Study, 54, 101
parental participation, 6, 56, 62-64, 102-105
placement policies, 1, 90-94, 196-197
policy assumptions, 52-64
rationale behind, 52-53
referral rates, 71, 112, 159
standards-based reform melded with, 20-22, 45, 64-67
state laws, 2, 51-52
Speech and language (Sp/L) disorders
and achievement test scores, 265, 271-272, 273 n.5
characteristics of, 79-80, 87
declassification rates, 71 n.2
definition, 73, 75
instructional methods, 133, 134
and outcomes of students, 96, 97, 98, 99
and placement decisions, 92, 93
prevalence, 4, 76, 86, 87
Standards-based reform.
See also Content standards; Performance standards;
specific legislation
accountability in, 1-2, 27, 28, 65
alignment concept, 25, 65, 113, 141, 249
applicability to all students, 1-2, 3, 12, 33-36, 109
assessment in, 152, 155-157, 158-190
basis for policy, 11, 20-21
costs, 40, 48-49, 142, 143-144
credentialing issue, 121, 122-123
defined, 1, 3, 253
federal initiatives, 22-26
goals, 1, 5, 21, 148-149, 156
guiding assumptions, 2, 33-46, 113, 195
implementation, 3, 33-46, 64-65, 106, 255
issues and challenges, 11-12, 45, 109
and least restrictive environment, 60
local variability, 41 n.16
models for standard setting, 31
parental involvement in, 63, 100, 111, 255
policy assumptions, 33-46
political and perceptual barriers, 65-66
rationale behind policies, 29-32, 140
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recommendations, 197-210
state initiatives, 3, 26-29
State policies and initiatives.
See also individual states
accommodations, 28-29, 159-160
accountability systems, 27, 28, 155
assessment formats, 27-28, 155, 158
classification of disabilities, 4, 76, 83-84
content standards, 27, 114-117, 137-138, 149
plan requirements under Goals 2000, 24
special-education laws, 51-52
standards-based reform initiatives, 26-29
variations in education policies, 3, 21, 27-28
Students with disabilities.
See also Achievement and outcomes of students;
Participation of students with disabilities;
Performance of students with disabilities
characteristics, 86-100
disability-related characteristics, 88-90
educational placement, 90-94
entitlement to appropriate education, 56-59
in general education curriculum, 129, 132-136
identification of, 54-56, 185-186
longitudinal studies/databases, 91-92
number qualifying for special education, 69, 110
Systemic reform, 31, 34, 44-46, 253
Teachers.
See also Instructional practices
acceptance of standards-based reform, 36, 40-41, 42, 66
accountability, 155
capacity-building, 42 n.17
caseloads in special education, 145
curriculum development role, 44
IEP, views on, 56
licensure standards, 144
training and professional development, 44, 64, 130, 142, 143-144, 148, 189, 259, 260, 261
Technology
and assessments, 183, 255
assistive devices, 130-131
instructional, 130, 131-132, 255
Tennessee, 28 n.7, 123, 154, 155
Tests.
See also Assessment;
Reporting of assessment results
Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills, 263
Graduate Record Examination, 177, 179
high-stakes, 108, 152, 156, 159, 168, 187, 251
Law School Admission Test (LSAT), 180
minimum competency, 32, 61, 123, 156, 187-188
Scholastic Aptitude Test, 177, 179, 180
standardized, 107, 151, 173, 176, 252-253, 256
"teaching to,"; 152
Texas, 28 n.7
Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), 30
Title I programs, 2, 25-26, 165, 174, 185, 253, 262
Traumatic brain injury, 74, 75, 80, 81, 88, 93
Vermont, 34, 39, 137, 143, 163
Visual impairment including blindness, 74, 80, 81, 88, 93, 99, 134 , 186
Vocational/occupational programs
achievement/outcomes, 135, 136
content standards, 5, 115, 146, 149
participation, 135
skills, 79
training, 98, 101
Washington state, 139
Workshop
questions posed for, 254
presentations and discussions, 254-261
Writing, 38, 116, 132
Wyoming, 155
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