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Striking a Balance: Improving Stewardship of Marine Areas
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Striking a Balance: Improving Stewardship of Marine Areas
Index
A
Access to marine resources
cap and trade mechanisms for controlling, 111-112
community rights, 107
enforcement mechanisms, 112-113
individual rights, 107-108
land-based growth controls, 108-109
pricing of, 109-111
recommendations, 119
tools for controlling, 106
Accountability, 2, 89, 149
in federalist model of governance, 4
national interests in marine areas, 18-19
principles for governance and management, 16, 143
of regional councils, 98
Adaptive management, 15, 145
Agricultural runoff, 25
Alaska fisheries by-catch, 59-60, 73, 79
Aquaculture, 107
Assessment and valuation, 1-2, 141
active use services, 21
bequest use services, 21
challenges, 19, 27-28
contribution of coastal economy to GNP, 24
estimates of public's willingness to pay, 22
existence use services, 21
importance of, for policy making, 19-20
indirect use services, 21-22
long-term considerations in, 23
passive use services, 21, 22
problems of undervaluation, 22-23
recommendations, 119-120
techniques, 21-24
terminology, 20-21
trends data, 24-27
B
Barrier islands, 87
Bequests, 21
Bonds, 113, 161
Boundary-setting, 5, 12-13, 118, 143-144, 146
National Marine Sanctuaries program, 100
regional ecosystem perspective, 15
special assessment districts, 166
Brundtland Commission, 87
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C
Capacity to manage
definition, 43
state government, 43-45
Case studies
common themes, 69-70
decision-making style, 71-73
evaluation criteria, 49-50, 150
governance systems, 80-81, 83, 85-86
individual personality factors in, 77-78
leadership in, 85
lessons of, 84
program planning, 84-85
reward systems in, 76
selection criteria, 150
settings for, 48-49.
See also specific setting
significance of, 2-3, 48
Chaos, 83-84
Chesapeake Bay management, 26-27
effectiveness, 63-64, 77
fishing license program, 113-114
historical development, 62-63
Clean Air Act, 44, 55
Clean Water Act, 44
Clean water districts, 114-115
Climate, 17
Coast Guard, U. S., 14, 139
Coastal Zone Management Program, 88
California case study, 54, 55
opportunities for improvement, 99, 147
state initiatives, 41, 44, 45
structure and function, 29-30, 108, 139
Coherent system of governance and management
in case studies, 2-3
characteristics of, 83
efforts toward, 88
funding oversight, 149
goals, 12, 13-14, 137
implementation, 148-149
lack of, 2, 4, 9-10, 46, 82-83, 89, 117, 137, 140
National Marine Council for, 91-94, 99
organizational structure for, 89
recommendations for, 5, 118-119
regional conflicts, 8-9
role of regional marine councils, 96
use of existing programs, 6, 99
Compensation for damages, 104-106
Complex systems, 71-73
Comprehensive conservation and management plan, 100
Conflict resolution
economic valuation issues, 22
principles for governance and management, 16, 145
regional marine councils for, 96-97
resource use conflicts, 103-106
shortcomings of current system, 117, 140
Contracts/contracting, 97
Creativity and innovation, 16, 78, 84, 89, 94, 146
D
Decision-making style, 71-73, 84
Department of Defense, U. S., 14, 139
Department of State, U.S., 139
E
Economic policy
challenges for stewardship, 1, 8
consideration of resource preservation, 23
current inadequacies, 9-10
environmental policy linkages, 46
offshore oil and gas leases, 36-38
pricing of access to marine resources, 109-111
principles for governance and management, 16
single-purpose approach to management, 9, 46
sustainable development, 10, 15
valuation of coastal resources for, 19-20, 23
Efficiency of management, 16, 143
Enforcement of regulations, 112-113, 120
Environmental impact statements, 90
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Environmental policy
cap and trade mechanisms, 111-112
challenges for stewardship, 1, 8
consideration of resource preservation, 23
current inadequacies, 9-10, 12
economic policy linkages, 46
economic valuation issues, 23-24
fisheries regulation, 38-41
goals, 87
management tools, 7
marine and coastal protected areas, 104
offshore oil and gas regulation, 37-38, 41-42
pollution tax, 163
regional ecosystem perspective, 15
single-purpose approach to management, 9, 46
state trends, 45
sustainable development, 10, 15
zoning as tool of, 104
Environmental Protection Agency
authority and responsibility, 14, 139
Chesapeake Bay management, 62, 63
future role, 101
Santa Monica Bay Restoration Project, 68
Environmental quality
economic valuation issues, 23, 24-27
estimates of public's willingness to pay for, 22
Gulf of Maine fisheries, 57
system interactions in, 26-27
threats to, 11-12, 17
threats to fisheries, 38
trends, 2, 24-27, 141
unique features of marine ecology, 17-18
Equity, 16, 142
Estuaries
definition, 33
ecological significance, 33
management authority, 33-35
See also National Estuary Program
Eutrophication, 25
Exclusive Economic Zone, 24
definition, 12
international agreements, 19
state-level initiatives, 29, 30
Externalities, 28, 104
F
Federalist model, 4, 89-90
advantages, 98-99
distinctive features, 90
Fisheries, 11
access rights, 106, 107-108
Alaska fisheries by-catch, 59-60
buy-out programs, 110-111
current inadequacies in management of, 101-102
ecosystem threats, 38
effects of overfishing, 57
licensing for use of, 107, 109-110, 113-114
limitations on harvest, 107-108
moratoria, 148
ocean ecology, 18, 33
opportunities for improvement, 102
regulation in sanctuary areas, 32-33
regulatory structures and policies, 38-41, 43, 95, 100
taxation, 162-163
trends, 12, 24-25
valuation, 22, 24-25, 38
See also Gulf of Maine fisheries;
Maine lobster fishery
Fishery Conservation and Management Act, 38-40, 57, 58, 95
Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, 3, 79
community support, 51
economic value of tourism, 20
enabling factors, 52-53
key features, 52
near-term challenges, 50
planning process, 51-52, 84-85
scope, 50
setting, 50
Funding
clean water district fees, 114-115
for comprehensive conservation and management plans, 100
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for estuary improvement/maintenance, 100-101
fishing license program for, 113-114
innovative sources, 165-167
of marine area programs, 113
mechanisms, 161-165
oversight, 149
political context, 113
recommendations, 120
regional marine councils for coordination of, 96
G
Georges Bank, 56-57
Goal-setting, 5, 118, 146
in organizations, 75
role of regional marine councils, 96
Governance of marine systems, 88
alternative models, 82-83, 85-86, 90-91
communication among stakeholders, 85
complexity of, 71-73
current inadequacies, 2, 4, 8-10, 12, 45, 94, 117, 139-141
current regulatory authority, 14
definition, 5, 137-138
federal role, 95
federalist approach, 4, 89-90
functioning in chaos, 83-84
goals for, 14-15, 89
human elements of, 73-74
leadership for, 85
models for improvement, 3
National Marine Council for, 90-94
ongoing nature of, 84
opportunities for improvement, 46-47
planning process, 84-85
prerequisites for improvement, 3, 4-5, 14, 117-118, 143-145, 146
principles for, 15-16, 70, 142-143
process for improving, 145-146
recommendations for, 118-119
reform attempts, 90
regional marine councils for, 94-98
stakeholder access to process of, 22
traditional bureaucratic model, 80-82
use of existing programs, 6, 88, 99-102, 147-148
Gulf of Maine fisheries, 3, 12, 20, 77-78
environmental threats, 57
governance regime, 57-58, 73, 77, 80, 83
management effectiveness, 58-59
physical characteristics, 56-57
I
Implementation of change
current indications, 136-137
Florida Keys marine sanctuary case study, 50-53
models for improvement, 3
new institutional structures for, 148
organizational morale and, 79-80
planning coordination, 148-149
political considerations, 77
process, 145-146
recommendations, 120
sources of initiatives, 3
urgency for, 8, 24, 137
use of existing programs, 6, 7, 99-102, 147-148
Individual action, 3
organizational functioning and, 74, 75
personality factors in management effectiveness, 77-78
reward systems, 75-76
Information management
baseline environmental data, 66
communication among stakeholders, 85
for consensus building, 78-79
in governance case studies, 66-67, 68, 69
national coordination, 93
organizational attitude, 78-79
for Santa Monica Bay Restoration Project, 68, 69
Interest groups/stakeholders, 2
access and use enforcement activities, 112-113
access to governance process, 22
access to information, 78-79
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adversarial nature of current governance process, 9-10
collaborative problem-solving in Alaskan fisheries, 59-60
communication among, 85
contracts, 97
economic valuation of marine resources, 22
Gulf of Maine fisheries case study, 58-59
in National Marine Sanctuaries program, 33
in Oregon coastal management plan, 66
principles for governance and management, 16, 144, 146
resource use conflicts, 27-28
International context
challenges for stewardship, 1, 8
marine management structures, 148
regional governance in, 15
International Maritime Organization, 155
Inventory of natural areas, 66
J
Jet skis, 32
L
Law of the Sea Convention, 19, 24, 148
Leadership, 85
Licensing, 107, 109-111
fishing license program, 113-114
Local and regional decision making, 3
California oil and gas leasing case study, 53-56
in Coastal Zone Management Program, 29-30
current inadequacies, 8-9
current state authority, 14, 29
current state regulation, 41-43
in federalist model of governance, 4, 89-90
under Fishery Conservation and Management Act, 39-40, 43
interstate collaboration for Chesapeake Bay management, 62-63
limitations of, 89
Maine lobster fishery case study, 60-62
National Marine Council model, 93, 94
in National Marine Sanctuaries program, 33
in planning of Florida Keys marine sanctuary, 52-53
recommendations for, 5, 118-119
regional ecosystem perspective, 15
regional marine councils for, 5, 6
state's capacity to manage, 43-45
Long Island Sound National Estuary Program, 25
effectiveness, 64
enabling factors, 65, 85
goals, 64
key features, 65
planning process, 64
M
Maine lobster fishery, 78
management effectiveness, 62
management regime, 60-62, 76
Management of marine systems
adaptability, 15
controlling access, 106-112
current inadequacies, 2, 8-10, 12, 117, 139-141
current regulatory authority, 14
definition, 5, 137-138
liability for damages, 104-105
managing conflicting uses, 103-106
models for improvement, 3
prerequisites for improvement, 3, 4-5, 117-118, 146
principles for, 15-16, 70, 142-143
recommendations for, 119-120
scope, 28-29
single-purpose approach, 9, 46, 139
state's capacity to manage, 43-45
for sustainability, 88
tools for. See Management tools
unique challenges, 87-88
use of existing programs, 6, 99-102
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Management tools
for controlling marine area access and use, 106-112
for enforcing access and use regulations, 112-113
need for, 12
recommendations, 5, 7, 119
for resolving conflicting uses, 103-106
selection, 103
types of, 103
Marine and coastal protected areas, 104
Marine environment, defined, 12-13, 138
Marine management area
categories of, 147, 153-156
definition and characteristics, 13, 138, 147, 153
trends, 149
Military operations, 19, 139
Minerals Management Service, 14, 36, 139
California case study, 54-56, 101
Mississippi River, 25
Monitoring and evaluation, 5, 118, 146
for enforcing access and use regulations, 112, 120
management, 93, 149
marine management areas for, 154
regional marine council activities, 98
Santa Monica Bay Restoration Project, 68
Morale, 79-80
Moratoria, 148, 149
N
National Environmental Policy Act, 37, 90
National Estuary Program, 14, 33-35, 88, 139, 148
effectiveness, 100
Long Island Sound case study, 64-65
opportunities for improvement, 100-101
National interest
definition, 1-2, 141-142
federal responsibility for marine areas, 18-19, 88
in maritime environment, 142
mechanism for consideration and expression of, 88-89, 92-94
National Marine Council
advantages, 98-99
authority, 91
Coastal Zone Management Program and, 99
fisheries management, 102
information management activities, 93
problem-identification and intervention, 91
rationale, 90-91
recommendations for, 5, 118-119
regional marine councils and, 95
structure and function, 5-6, 90, 91-94, 98, 102
National Marine Fisheries Service, 38-41, 139
in Alaskan fisheries management, 59, 60
Gulf of Maine governance, 57-59
in Maine lobster fisheries management, 62
National Marine Sanctuaries program, 3, 30-33
challenges, 33
objectives, 30-31, 147
opportunities for improvement, 99-100, 147
prospects for, 33
state initiatives, 42, 45
structure and operations, 30, 31-33, 88
National Marine Sanctuary program
See also Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
authority and responsibility, 14, 138-139
Florida Keys marine sanctuary, 50-53
San Francisco Bay demonstration project, 66
National Park Service, 14, 139
Nitrogen, 64
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O
Ocean dumping, 30
Oil and gas resources, 11
current inadequacies in management of, 101
management trends, 25
offshore leasing, 25, 148
opportunities for improved management of, 101
pollution compensation/liability, 105
regulatory environment, 36-38, 41, 42, 139
state management, 44-45
See also Southern California offshore oil and gas leasing
Oregon coastal management
effectiveness, 65, 80
enabling factors, 66
historical development, 65
key features, 66
planning and implementation, 65
public participation, 65, 66
Organizational and behavioral issues
alternative governance models, 82-83, 85-86, 90-91
attitudes toward innovation and risk, 78
federalist model, 89-90
functioning in chaos, 83-84
information management, 78-79
institutional connectivity, 144-145
interactions, 73-74
leadership, 85
missions and goals, 75
morale, 79-80
personality factors in management effectiveness, 77-78
political processes, 76-77
problem-solving in complex systems, 71-73
requirements for successful management, 71
reward systems, 75-76
traditional bureaucratic governance models, 80-82
Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act, 36-38
state use of, 44
P
Political functioning, 76-77
Population trends, 11-12, 87
Private property rights, 2
for fisheries management, 106, 107
R
Recreational activities, 11
estimates of public's willingness to pay for, 22
regulation in sanctuary areas, 32
trends, 24-25
valuation, 19, 20
Regional marine councils, 5, 6
advantages, 95, 98-99, 102
design, 94-95, 96
duration, 95
fisheries management, 102
rationale, 94, 95-96
recommendations for, 119
role of, 94-98, 101, 102
Regulatory environment
adversarial, 9
coastal authority, 11
current inadequacies, 2, 8-9, 12, 13-14, 28
current institutional authorities, 14, 138-139
fisheries management, 38-41
management tools, 7, 103
marine management areas, 13
memorandum of agreement for waiving regulations, 97
oil and gas industry, 36-38, 41, 42, 53-56
resistance to innovation, 16
resource use enforcement mechanisms, 112-113
state initiatives, 41-43
trends among states, 43-45
See also specific governmental authority;
specific legislation
Resource use, 3
access controls, 106-112
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Alaska fisheries by-catch case study, 59-60
cap and trade mechanisms for controlling, 111-112
challenges for stewardship, 1, 8, 11-12, 28-29
coastal authority, 11
compensation/liability for damages, 104-105
current management inadequacies, 8-9, 12, 139, 140
decision making in National Marine Council, 92, 93-94
enforcement mechanisms, 112-113
as environmental threat, 17
estimates of public's willingness to pay for, 22
Gulf of Maine management case study, 56-59
individual and community rights, 106-108
Maine lobster fishery case study, 60-62
management tools, 7
managing conflicts in, 103-106
Oregon coastal management, 65-66
prenegotiated mitigation, 105-106
pricing mechanisms for controlling, 109-111
principles for governance and management, 16, 143
scope, 10-11
stakeholder conflicts, 27-28, 140
taxation, 162-163
tragedy of the commons, 23-24
trends, 24-27
valuation issues, 21-24
vs. resource preservation, 23
See also Oil and gas resources
Reward systems, 75-76, 77, 78
Risk assessment, 15
Risk-taking, 78
S
San Francisco Bay demonstration project, 66-68, 76
Santa Monica Bay restoration project, 68-69, 76-77, 79, 83, 85
Scientific information, 5, 118
principles for governance and management, 15, 143, 146
Sensitive sea areas, 155
Shellfish industry, 25, 114
taxation, 162-163
Shoreline Management Act of 1971, 108
Southern California offshore oil and gas leasing, 73, 75, 78, 79-80
enabling factors, 55-56
historical context, 53-54
key features, 54-55
management successes, 54
Stakeholders. See Interest groups/stakeholders
State Ocean Plans, 148
Sustainable development/use
benefits of, 142
economic valuation issues, 24-25
goals, 87
implications for management, 88
national commitment to, 10
performance standards, 15
tragedy of the commons, 23-24
T
Taxes, 113, 161-164, 166-167
Timeliness, 16
Tourism, 11
economic valuation, 20
taxation, 162
Tragedy of the commons, 23-24
Training, 98
Transparency, 16, 144
Transportation, 11, 32, 139
Treaties and agreements, 19, 24
U
User fees, 109-111
W
Waste management, 25, 106
nitrogen release, 64
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Wetlands, 106
trends, 25
Wildlife habitat, 11
fisheries regulation, 38-41
ocean ecology, 17-18
trends, 25-26
Z
Zoning, 7, 52, 104
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