The makeup of the international fleet trading to the United States is determined primarily by U.S. requirements for oil imports and the geographical distribution of supplier nations. Most U.S. oil imports are crude oil. In 1994, for example, U.S. oil imports totaled 8.1 million barrels per day (MBD), of which 7.0 MBD were crude oil. The predominance of crude oil imports is expected to continue through 2015 (EIA, 1996).

The longer the distance that crude oil must travel before reaching the United States, the larger the tanker used is likely to be. The selection of tanker size is determined by logistics and economics. The economics of transporting long-haul crude usually favor the use of very large crude carriers (VLCCs). Many crude oil loading terminals overseas are located at ports that can accommodate fully loaded VLCCs. However, there are no ports on the U.S. east or Gulf coasts deep enough to accommodate such ships when fully loaded. Hence, there is a need for deepwater ports and lightering zones. The economic decision regarding tanker size is often based on a comparison between the higher chartering cost per barrel of crude oil shipped in small tankers and the lower chartering cost per barrel of oil shipped in larger tankers, combined with lightering costs or the cost of unloading at the Louisiana Offshore Oil Port (LOOP).¹ Short-haul crude oil imports (e.g., from the Caribbean) are generally shipped in smaller tankers that either sail directly into U.S. ports or can be partially lightered so that most of the cargo remains on the tanker, which is then moved into port and unloaded.²

The amount of crude oil and finished products imported into the United States by water increased by 19 percent from 1990 to 1994 (see Table 3-1).³ The Atlantic coast showed a decline of 6 percent, the Gulf coast an increase of 28 percent, and the Pacific coast an increase of 69 percent. The committee found that these changes in import patterns caused a change in the size distribution of oil tankers trading to the United States between 1990 and 1994. In 1990, the large crude carriers that use the LOOP or lightering areas in the Gulf of Mexico were the largest group in the Gulf compared to all others that entered Gulf ports (with or without local lightering), including crude carriers, fuel oil carriers, and product carriers. By 1994, as shown in Table 3-1, more cargo was being transported to the Gulf in 80,000 to 150,000-deadweight ton (DWT) vessels.

Front Matter (R1-R20)

Executive Summary (1-9)

1 Introduction (10-17)

2 Ship Safety and Protection of the Marine Environment (18-41)

3 Operational Makeup of the Maritime Oil Transportation Industry (42-64)

4 Economic Impact of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 on the International Tanker Fleet (65-96)

5 Domestic (Jones Act) Tanker Trade (97-114)

6 Design, Construction, Operation, and Maintenance of Double-Hall Vessels (115-141)

7 Conclusions and Recommendations (142-150)

Appendix A (151-157)

Appendix B (158-164)

Appendix C (165-169)

Appendix D (170-172)

Appendix E (173-175)

Appendix F (176-177)

Appendix G (178-181)

Appendix H (182-184)

Appendix I (185-186)

Appendix J (187-190)

Appendix K (191-242)

Appendix L (243-249)

Appendix M (250-262)

Acronyms and Glossary (263-266)