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6
Engineering~s Future:
Requirements for a Changing
Environment
The Year 2000: What Will the Engineering Environment Be Like'
Looking forward to the year 2000 {or to any future year), the commit-
tee believes that it is the goal of those who are responsible for the
education of engineers and the organization of engineering's effort to
ensure that economically or socially beneficial products or services are
not delayed or denied to society because of an inadequate engineering
establishment in the United States.
Likely Characteristics
One way perhaps the best way to gauge the means and mecha-
nisms by which engineers are educated and utilized is to begin by
identifying likely general differences between the United States of
today and the United States in the year 2000. We may then consider
how the existing means and mechanisms can be adjusted to ensure that
the engineering community will provide effective, efficient support for
such likely and evolutionary changes.
Assuming that there is no global conflagration during the next 15
years, the committee believes that the United States of 2000 will very
likely be characterized in the following ways:
· The time horizons over which U.S. industry seeks to maximize its
profits will likely be longer than those of today.
111
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ENGINEERING EDUCATION AND PRACTICE
· While suppliers of capital will often take a longer view of the
performance of businessmen in allocating financial resources, there
will nevertheless be significant shortages of capital for at least some
industries and firms.
· The United States will increasingly be an integral part of a truly
global economy, with international trade as a growing component of
United States economic activity. Generally increased interindustry
and intraindustry competition will characterize this global economy.
· Because of developments in defense, energy, space, and other
areas, government demand for engineering goods and services {both
direct and indirect) will increase significantly in proportion to other
sources of demand.
· Whether or not energy materials remain relatively scarce, the
economy of 2000 and beyond! will face raw materials shortages {in some
cases chronic shortages).
· Scientific discoveries and technology development will continue
to occur at a rapid rate. This process will make possible the seminal,
revolutionary advances that create new industries; it will also give
engineers a larger menu of technical tools and options for existing
tasks.
· At the same time the number of engineering tasks that do not
require cutting-edge engineering will continue to increase as evi-
denced by the growing need to maintain, rehabilitate, and operate the
nation's aging infrastructure.
Before elaborating upon the impacts and implications of the forego-
ing likely differences between 1985 and 2000, it is important to reiter-
ate that they have been postulated here to permit us to arrive at
judgments concerning the education and utilization of engineers in the
United States. Other changes may prove to be equally important; nor
will all of those (lescribed necessarily be seen. However, if the available
means and mechanisms for educating engineers and allocating their
services can cope satisfactorily with the changes outlined, they should
be capable of dealing with virtually anything the future has in store for
the United States.
This assertion is predicated on the assumption that many of the
recommendations in this report have been heeded and implemented.
That is, because of the focus on engineering science and fundamentals,
the educational system will have produced thoughtful, flexible engi-
neering talent. The managers of both government and private organiza-
tions will fully understand that engineering effectiveness depends to a
great extent on how well the engineering effort is managed. As a result,
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113
they will have devised means and mechanisms for organizing engineer-
ing resources in such a way as to meet, with acceptable efficiency, the
demands placed upon the engineering community.
Impacts andImp~ications
In the United States of the mid-1980s, the time horizons of managers
in most American companies and industries are short because of the
pressure for quarter-to-quarter earnings improvements emanating
from institutional investors and corporate stockholders. Because this
situation does grievous Tong-term harm to the United States espe-
cially in markets where much of the competition is from abroad it is
reasonable to expect that a more rational approach will emerge, either
through government action or through changed attitudes on the part of
investors or both. Hence, the time horizons of managers can be
expected to lengthen substantially.
The implications for engineering are significant. For example, there
will be increasing emphasis on capital-intensive solutions to produc-
tion problems. Product quality can be improved as investments in
plant and equipment as well as in the education and training of employ-
ees become not only tolerable but required. In turn, the demand for
technology-intensive capital goods will be greater, and the range of
engineering disciplines required to meet that demand will certainly be
very broad. However, the demand will not be uniform across the spec-
trum of engineering at any point in time. Consequently, engineers
capable of working in adjacent disciplines will function better than
those who are more narrowly educated.
Public/private sector versatility Similarly, the further growth of
government demand for engineering goods and services will create a
need and an advantage for engineers who are capable of functioning in
both the public and private sectors. A basic requirement here is that
such engineers must understand the different management objectives
of these two sectors.
Private-sector objectives are driven by competitive markets, while
public-sector objectives are driven by political and public concerns.
Thus engineers in each sector place different degrees of emphasis on the
common engineering concerns for innovation, cost containment, pro-
ductivity, safety, consumer satisfaction, and protection of the environ-
ment {Report of the Pane} on Engineering Interactions With Society) .
The committee concludes that sensitizing students to these basic
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ENGINEERING EDUCATION AND PRACTICE
differences in the servicing of the public and private sector is of consid-
erable importance. If engineers know and can recognize the differences,
regardless of the occupational environment in which they find them-
selves, they will be able to understand how and why approaches differ.
In this way they will be much better able to move between public-
sector and private-sector career opportunities. In addition, better
understanding by engineers in each sector of the basic objectives of the
other sector will yield better, more economical products and services in
both sectors.
Shortages of resources. Throughout most of the history of engi-
neering in the United States, engineers have been educated and ori-
ented to deal with situations characterized by a sufficiency, if not a
surplus, of resources for use in the task at hand. Since the energy crisis
of 1973, there have been modest attempts to introduce into engineering
curricula materials that suggest engineers may have to face shortages of
one resource or another. Generally, the emphasis in this regard has been
on energy. Since it is likely that both spot and chronic shortages of
materials of various kinds will increasingly characterize the economy
of the future, it is increasingly important for both engineering educa-
tion and practice to reflect that fact. Students will need to learn how to
deal with shortages in resources so that they may take explicit account
of them when performing engineering functions in the economy.
Of all the resources that will periodically be scarce in the future, none
can be so predictably forecast as shortages related to capital to finan-
cial resources. Expensive capital (i.e., capital in short supply) will
severely affect building and construction, venture capital availability
{and thus the number of start-ups), and modernization and expansion
efforts. Since capital constraints will be a very real aspect of the opera-
tional environment of the future, it will be essential for students to
understand the impact of these constraints on planning and design.
G1oba! economy. It is not enough for engineers to be trained and
employed in such a wary that only U.S. markets and conditions are
taken into account. Inevitably, the United States must become increas-
ingly bound up in the world economy. This means that the practice of
engineering will have to take account of what foreign markets require
and will accept. {An obvious example is the growing importance of
-standards and interchangeability on a worldwide basis. ~ It also means
that international competition between the engineering work forces of
different countries will intensify. This is not a subject that the commit
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ENGINEERING'S FUTURE
115
tee was able to examine in detail, although it clearly has major implica-
tions for the future. ~
One important implication of the global economy is that it requires
sensitivity to regional and cultural differences and their impact on
worldwide demand for engineering goods and services. Engineers will
also need to appreciate the financial, political, and security forces at
play internationally. The nontechnical components of engineering
education ought to include exposure to these aspects of contemporary
. .
engmeermg.
In this context, communication among U.S. engineers and engineer-
ing-based companies is crucial if the United States is to maximize the
net benefits it derives from participation in international trade and in
other aspects of the global economy. The engineering community
ought to be prepared to promote open communication of this kind,
especially with regard to the goods and services that the world {and not
merely the United States) requires and is prepared to accept.
Rapid scientific and technological change Science and technology
have been invaluable contributors to the expansion and success of the
U. S. economy. This will be no less true in the foreseeable future than in
the past. Here again, the implications for engineering education and
utilization are very great. Indeed, engineering practice has already been
undergoing a revolution over the past several years. New engineering
tools based on the computer, such as computer-aided design and com-
puter-based workstations, are part of this revolutionary change. New
methods such as simulation and modeling are driving engineering
activity in the direction of greater abstraction more mathematical
analysis, less experimentation.
There is no apparent slowdown in this revolution in practice. In fact,
it will continue to accelerate, and will gain further impetus from addi-
tional progress in such technologies as composite materials, expert
systems, and supercomputers. With their creative and productive capa-
bilities greatly enhanced through the use of such tools and methods,
engineers in every discipline will be able to turn increasingly from the
~ Differences in the roles and responsibilities of engineers in different countries, as
well as a lack of adequate data, make direct comparisons difficult. Some sources of
reference in this area are Mintzes, 1982; Mintzes and Tash, 1984; National Research
Council, 1984; National Science Board, 1983; Office of Technology Assessment, 1983;
Office of Technology Assessment, 1984; and Secretary of State for Industry, 1980.
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ENGINEERING EDUCATION AND PRACTICE
mechanical to the conceptual. Many of them will be less involved in
the performance of conventional or routine engineering work and more
involved in the formulation of ideas, in making choices.
Consequently, an increasingly important element of engineering
education will be to teach engineers to approach problems-that is,
how to ask the right questions and know the dimensions of responsive
answers even when the details of a project are entirely new with
regarc} to materials or processes, environmental issues, or markets.
The options and opportunities based in changing scientific and tech-
nological possibilities are vast. Therefore, engineers need to be well
rounded in science and increasingly knowledgeable about scientific
advances that have promise for supporting engineers facing specific,
related project responsibilities and objectives. Engineers should also be
equipped to play a substantial role in the various processes of techno-
logical innovation that are essential to the well being of the United
States, both in civil and military contexts. Engineers who understand
and appreciate the scientific and technological underpinnings of the
products and processes with which they are involved can participate to
the utmost in innovation processes, especially if they have also been
educated in the fundamentals of innovation.
Because of its focus on research, engineering doctoral study is at
present one of the best ways to acquire a strong orientation toward
scientific and technological innovation. The Ph.D. will continue to be
valuable, both to the profession and to the individual degree holder. In
the short term, there will be a great need for more of the best engineer-
ing students to obtain the doctoral degree and become engineering
professors. Given the expected increase in emphasis on research and
innovation in most industries, in the long term it will be beneficial for
the nation as a whole if more United States residents of the highest
academic caliber choose to continue on for the Ph.D.
Notwithstanding the expansion of scientific discoveries and techno-
Togical possibilities, society will continue to require substantial even
growing-engineering services of a less advanced nature. This is espe-
cially apparent with regard to the expanding need to maintain the aging
plant and equipment fount! in both the public and private sectors.
Need for economic awareness. Despite the anticipated involve-
ment of government in the U.S. economy, in the private sector domes-
tically, and in international trade generally, heightened competition on
both the interindustry and intraindustry levels can be safely projected.
This implies that engineers must establish and maintain great sensitiv
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117
ity to the economic aspects of engineering; these cannot be treated as
subordinate issues. To do so would jeopardize the usefulness and value
of individual engineers; it would also produce engineering results that
do not serve the interests of the U.S. economy to the extent that they
can and should.
Means and Mechanisms for Adapting Successfully
What is needec} to enable the engineering community to adapt to
these likely future conditions (still assuming that the ability to cope
with those conditions implies an ability to cope with any likely future)?
The foregoing section as well as earlier sections have identified a num-
ber of different characteristics and strengths the engineering commu-
nity must acquire to ensure that the United States maintains its
relative position in the world and that engineering continues to meet
the nation's needs. Many of these requirements relate to the kind of
education that engineers receive before entering practice. Others relate
to their subsequent responsibilities as professional men and women.
They are drawn together here from various sections of the report in
order to bring into clearer focus the range of requirements that the
engineering community will need to address effectively if it is to meet
the demands that the future will place upon it.
Curriculum Requirements
Broadengineeringeducation. Of foremost importance is the ability
to impart a strong, diversified engineering education one incorporat-
ing depth of specialization as well as breadth, with a strong grounding
in the fundamentals. To the extent that there has been movement
toward the concept of basic engineering and general education, fol-
lowed by specific study in the engineering field, the committee encour-
ages that trend. Dual-degree and other alternative curricula should be
examined to see whether they can expand the benefits of this approach.
Stronger nontechnical education. Related to the broader engineer-
ing education urged by the committee is the need for better general
education of engineers. Exposure to course work in the humanities,
arts, and social sciences over an extended period of time {i.e., beyond
just the freshman and sophomore years) offers many advantages in
molding the contemporary engineer. Among the most tangible of these
is an improved facility for communication, both written and oral. Sev
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ENGINEERING EDUCATION AND PRACTICE
eral recent authoritative reports have stressed the importance of the
humanities, in particular, in shaping a young man's or woman's judg-
ment and system of values {see, for example, Bennett, 1984~.
Greater exposure to the world of ideas in general renders an engineer
better equipped to function on an equal footing, both professionally and
socially, with corporate peers and managers of varied educational back-
grounds. In the real world of the workplace, such fluency is important
in enabling engineers to represent effectively the interests, needs, and
objectives of the engineering department within the organization.
Finally, education of this type prepares an engineer to better anticipate,
understand, and adapt to the new and changing conditions whether
they be social, economic, cultural, or political that will affect tech-
nology development in the global marketplace of the future.
Exposure to computer technology. It is certain that the computer
will become pervasive in the practice of engineering, both as a too! for
performing the engineering job itself {e.g., in design) and as a medium
for carrying out many other necessary activities (e.g., communication,
recor~keeping, and reporting). Consequently, engineering educationin
every discipline must include some exposure to computer science and
programming. Computers are at present a more central feature of the
educational experience in some disciplines than in others in, say,
electrical engineering than in civil engineering. Budgetary constraints
are certainly a factor here in most schools. However, a goal of engineer-
ing school administrators should be to see that every department has
access to the available computer resources.
Orientation to the realities of the work world. The context in
which engineering work is carried out is changing in a number of ways,
as described in the previous section. Many of these changing features of
the environment have implications for engineering curricula, apart
from those already discussed. Increasingly frequent and severe short-
ages of materials of various kinds, for example, will require that engi-
neering students learn how to deal with resource shortages as one type
of constraint on design. Another type of resource constraint is shortages
of capital, which will likely be a frequent consideration for the foresee-
able future. Students must likewise be able to understand and deal with
the impact of this constraint on planning and design.
A third requirement derives from the expected further growth in
government use of engineering resources. The engineering educational
process should make students aware of the differing objectives and
([riving forces that, in general, characterize engineering in the public
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119
and private sectors. Such an awareness is important for engineers in
either sector as the interaction between sectors increases and espe-
cially as the flow of engineers between sectors increases. Finally, an
awareness of the different cultural objectives and forces characterizing
different regions of the world market {at least in general) will help
engineers to have a better sense of the dynamics and requirements of
international competition for these markets. Such knowledge, specific
to the realities of the world market for engineering products, could
form one of many links between the technical and nontechnical com-
nonents of engineering education.
. .
Persona] career management. Many of the points made in the sec-
tion on characteristics of the future highlighter] the need for career
adaptability. It is generally not part of engineering curricula under-
graduate or graduate, formal or informal to provide engineers with
the insights necessary to promote their ability to manage their own
careers in any Tong-term sense. This is a great shortcoming in engineer-
ing education. Certainly if engineers are made aware of the options and
opportunities they will face in the future as well as the problems and
pitfalls the allocation of resources both to and within engineering
will be far more efficiently carried out than would otherwise be the
case. The ability to actively and intelligently manage one's engineering
career would benefit not only in individuals but, in the aggregate, the
nation as a whole.
The foregoing represents a considerably long list of topics and new
educational emphases recommended for inclusion within the under-
graduate engineering curriculum. Yet, as was discussed in chapter 4, it
is difficult to provide even the cursory exposure to nontechnical sub-
jects currently required by most schools, within a four-year program.
There is frequent pressure to reduce even that small requirement in
order to satisfy the demanc] for greater technical content. The commit-
tee is well aware that to expect the current curriculum to be expancled
to accommodate greater breadth and depth of engineering stucly as well
as more nontechnical educational and orientational subjects would be
naive. Yet, these eclucational components will be increasingly neces-
sary if American engineers and engineering are to maintain the flexibil-
ity and resiliency that the future environment will demand.
On that basis the committee concludes that some restructuring of
the undergraduate curriculum will have to occur. What form it will
take will vary from school to school. Some of the material can be woven
into existing courses by changing the way in which courses are taught.
Greater flexibility in course requirements is another conservative
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ENGINEERING EDUCATION AND PRACTICE
approach, allowing more courses of this type to be taken as electives.
Five-year programs, including dual-degree programs, address the prob-
lem of too-limited time more directly. The concept of professional
engineering study following general education, as in the medical pro-
fession, has even been proposed. In any case, engineering schools will
have to examine their own circumstances very closely, with a view to
determining how these important educational needs can begin to be
addressed.
Requirements for the Professional Career
Greater management skills. Regardless of an engineer's field of
work, an important characteristic will be the possession of greater
management skills in the sense of technical project management and
management of the engineering task at hand than have been seen
among engineers in the past. The ability to work in teams and to relate
to other functions of the larger organization {e.g., marketing and
finance) is an essential element of these skills. In a more competitive
world, it will be advantageous if technical activities are managed com-
petently and directly by technically oriented people.
Broader education in both technical and nontechnical fields, as
called for in the previous section, will be important in preparing an
engineer intellectually for the complex demands of project manage-
ment. Nevertheless, the essential temperamental and experimental
preparation for those responsibilities is gained not in the classroom but
in the workplace. In the absence of specific on-the-job training for this
purpose, personal initiative on the part of the individual engineer will
continue to be necessary for gaining competence in these highly inter-
personal and sometimes political skills. Early work experience,
whether acquirer] through cooperative education, summer employ-
ment, or some other route, can also be a primary source of these practi-
cal skills. In acictition, work experience exposes the budding engineer to
documentation, reporting procedures, and other practical aspects of
basic engineering project and task management.
One intangible but important need in these challenging times is for
the development of a stronger sense among engineers of their profes-
sional role and its responsibilities. Professional ethics is a part of this
responsibility and is part of the impetus toward a broader education of
engineers {Christiansen, 1984; Report of the Panel on Support Organi-
zations and the Engineering Community) . Public criticism of engineer-
ing and technology has abated in recent years, but from it the
engineering community has learned an important lesson. That is, the
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innovation and management of complex technical systems involves a
consideration of social preferences and impacts as well as technical
knowledge and skill. Translating such considerations into corporate
policy has been perennially difficult. But if more engineers become
sensitized to the social ramifications of their work, their viewpoints
will represent a formidable force within industry (Report of the Panel
on Engineering Interactions With Society) .
Career effectiveness. The effectiveness of engineers depends upon
their knowledge and capabilities. Those characteristics, in turn, are a
function of experience, training, and almost as importantly-the
management approaches that prevail within the organization. The
organizational philosophy toward continuing education, in particular,
can greatly facilitate the effectiveness of engineering employees
throughout their careers. It is estimated that because of the rapidity of
technological change, an engineer who does not learn while working
now has a useful life in practice of only about 10 years. Easier access to
technical education and training throughout their careers will be nec-
essary if engineers are to keep current in their field and keep abreast of
developments in other fields. Such continuing education should
include timely access to effective retraining programs.
However, formal continuing education alone is not enough. Only
about a roughly estimated 5 percent of an engineer's continuing educa-
tional opportunities are of this type. The other 95 percent consist of a
wide range of informal experiences including on-the-job learning, con-
ferences, seminars, short courses, and so forth {Report of the Panel on
Continuing Education). Nor is it enough for management to be willing
to make these opportunities available. Engineers as individuals must
have the personal motivation necessary to take advantage of these
learning opportunities. A healthy respect for the career effects of obso-
lescence is certainly one basis for that motivation. But it must also be
based on a clear understanding of broad world and national economic
and technological trends and on a confidence in one's ability to main-
tain individual competency and marketability through individual ini-
tiative.
Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations
1. Likely characteristics of the engineering environment in the year
2000 include longer time horizons for profit-taking in industry, short-
ages of capital and resources {both energy and materials), a global econ-
omy, with increased intra- and interindustry competition, increased
government demand for engineering goods and services, continued
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ENGINEERING EDUCATION AND PRACTICE
high rate of scientific discovery and technology development, and an
increased requirement for nonadvanced engineering tasks.
2. Given anticipated growth in government demand for engineer-
ing resources, sensitizing students to basic differences in the servicing
of the public and private sectors is of considerable importance.
3. Because it is likely that both spot and chronic shortages of mate-
rials (as well as energy and capital) will characterize the economy of the
future, it is important for engineering education and practice alike to
reflect those constraints.
4. In the context of an increasingly global economy, sensitivity to
cultural and regional differences will be important qualities for engi-
neers to acquire. Engineers will also need to appreciate the financial,
political, and security forces at play internationally. Communication
among U.S. engineers and engineering-based companies regarding the
nature of international demand for goods and services will be crucial.
The nontechnical components of engineering education ought
to include exposure to these aspects of contemporary engineering. In
addition, the engineering community should strive to ensure open
communication on these matters among engineers ant] companies the
work] over.
5. Continuing scientific discovery and technology development
will give further impetus to a revolution in engineering practice. With
the use of new tools and methods the work of many engineers will
become increasingly abstract, involving formulation of ideas and
choosing among clevelopment options. Therefore engineers will need
to be able to deal with problems in unfamiliar contexts, they will need
to be knowledgeable about scientific advances generally, and they
should understand the fundamentals of innovation.
6. With heightened competition among and between industries,
both domestically and internationally, engineers must establish and
maintain great sensitivity to the economic aspects of engineering.
7. If United States engineers are to be adequately prepare(l to meet
future needs, then the undergraduate engineering curriculum must
emphasize broad engineering education, with strong grounding in fun-
damentals and science. In addition, the curriculum must be expanded
to include greater exposure to a variety of nontechnical subjects as well
as work-orientational skills and knowledge. To accomplish this expan-
sion will require restructuring of the standard four-year curriculum by
various means.
Engineering schools wiR have to examine their existing curricu-
7um and their particular circumstances closely in order to ascertain
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123
how the curriculum can best be restructured to address these important
educational needs.
In addition, the committee has recommended that the National
Science Foun~lation fund a pilot group of engineering schools to evalu-
ate dual-degree and othera~ternative educationalprograms experimen-
tally (see chapter 4, recommendation 15J. The results of this
experimental program are likely to be quite relevant to the question of
curriculum structure and nontraditional content. Participating
schools (and engineering school administrators genera1]yJ should
examine the results from this standpoint.
8. Successful adaptation to future conditions will require that prac-
ticing engineers develop a number of attributes. These include greater
technical project management skills, a stronger sense of professional
role and responsibilities, and a strong orientation toward maintenance
of effectiveness through continuing education.
References
Bennett, W. J.1984. To Reclaim A Legacy: A Report on the Humanities in Higher Educa-
tion. Washington, D.C.: National Endowment for the Humanities.
Christiansen, D.1984. The issues we avoid. IEEE Spectrum, 21 t6), p.25.
Mintzes, J.1982. Scientific and Technical Personnel Trends and Competitiveness of U.S.
Technologically Intensive and Critical Industries. Prepared for Division of Policy
Research and Analysis, National Science Foundation.
Mintzes, J. and Tash, W. 1984. Comparison of Scientific and Technical Personnel Trends
in the U.S., France, West Germany, and the United Kingdom Since 1970. Prepared for
Division of Science Resource Studies, National Science Foundation.
National Research Council. 1984. Labor Market Conditions for Engineers: Is There a
Shortage? Proceedings of a Symposium held by the Office of Scientific and Engineering
Personnel. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
NationalScience Board. 1983. ScienceIndicators: 1982. Washington, D.C.: National
Science Foundation, pp.2-37.
Office of Technology Assessment. 1983. International Competitiveness in Electronics.
Washington, E).C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Office of Technology Assessment. 1984. Computerized Manufacturing Automation:
Employment, Education, and the Workplace. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government
Printing Office.
Report of the Panel on Continuing Education, in preparation.
Report of the Panel on Engineering Interactions With Society, in preparation.
Report of the Panel on Support Organizations and the Engineering Community, in
preparation.
Secretary of State for Industry.1980. Engineering Our Future: Report of the Committee of
Inquiry Into the Engineering Profession. London, England: Her Majesty's Stationery
Office.
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
continuing education
