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Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research (1997)

Chapter: 2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force

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Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
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2
Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force

The National Pool of Scientists and Engineers

Before addressing the diversity of the ONR work force, it is important to understand the characteristics of the overall national pool of scientists and engineers from which those individuals are drawn. Based on data on current ONR employees and ONR's description of its expectations for hires, the committee identified a pool of U.S. scientists and engineers which it believes contains those individuals most likely to be eligible for ONR positions at the level of program officer or higher. This pool is limited to individuals with either a doctoral degree in a relevant science or engineering field or a master's degree in engineering. It is further limited to those with U.S. citizenship, a requirement of employment at ONR. The committee examined the characteristics of the overall pool and, to the extent possible, the corresponding characteristics of the members of underrepresented groups. None of these characteristics indicate an eligibility for or interest in work at ONR per se, but they do point to the types of individuals who have the potential for a good match. With the exception of the data on recent Ph.D.s, these numbers are estimates based on surveys of a representative sample of Ph.D.s and master's recipients currently working in the U.S.

Because most scientists and engineers have several years of professional experience before joining ONR, the committee focused its attention on the pool of individuals who received their degrees between 1960 and 1989. Deemed to be of an experience level comparable to those currently at ONR, this group is described in the section below entitled ''Experienced Doctorate and Master's Recipients." However, more recent degree recipients are by now or soon will be of an experience level to make them eligible for ONR positions as well. The characteristics of this pool are described in the section entitled "Recent Doctorate and Master's Recipients."

The pools of scientists and engineers described here cover all sectors of employment, including academia, industry, and government, and all geographic regions of the U.S. This is the case even though, as the report discusses later, some ONR recruitment efforts are restricted to the

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

Washington, D.C. metropolitan area, and many ONR employees are hired from elsewhere in the Navy. In addition, the committee recognizes that job mobility across geographic regions or across sectors of employment may be limited for many scientists and engineers.

At the same time, though, the data do not permit identifying a pool of potential employees by field for a specific geographic region or just for the Navy. Also, it is impossible to tell which individuals from other sectors of employment should be excluded because they are not truly mobile. Finally, while acknowledging ONR's unique job requirements, the committee believes that drawing from a broad national pool whenever possible can only enhance the quality and diversity of potential job candidates.

Experienced Doctorate and Master's Recipients
Ph.D.S in Science and Engineering Fields

In order to identify the pool of underrepresented minorities, women, and persons with disabilities possibly eligible to assume current management positions at ONR, the committee examined data from the 1993 Survey of Doctorate Recipients (the most recent data were not available at the time of committee deliberations). In order to match the pool to ONR's needs, only individuals with Ph.D.s in the following fields were included: biological sciences, engineering, mathematics and computer science, physical sciences, and relevant fields within psychology. Only U.S. citizens were included, and only those who indicated that they were currently working in a field "somewhat related" or "closely related" to their Ph.D. field (91 percent of the total). In addition, only individuals who received their doctorates between 1960 and 1989 were included. Data on this pool are presented in Table Series A-1.

The overall pool of experienced Ph.D.s who meet the above criteria includes 228,400 individuals. Women represent almost 15 percent (33,600) of the total pool of experienced Ph.D.s, ranging from 24 percent (16,200) in the biological sciences, to 9 percent (5,900) in the physical sciences, to 3 percent (1,700) in engineering (see Figure 2-1). The percentage of women is highest in psychology (34 percent or 7,600), but this field represents only 4 percent of the expertise of ONR's current work force.

There are 7,300 African Americans, American Indians, and Hispanics in this pool, comprising about 3 percent of the total. Like women, underrepresented minorities are represented in somewhat higher proportions in psychology. Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders comprise 9 percent (21,000) of the overall pool, with the highest concentration in engineering. Disabled persons represent less than 1 percent (1,500).

Within the physical sciences, the greatest number of women are in chemistry (11 percent or 4,000) and the lowest number in atmospheric sciences (2 percent or 30) and physics (4 percent or 800), as depicted in Figure 2-2. Although the numbers of underrepresented minorities in some of these fields are extremely small, they are somewhat higher in chemistry (3 percent or 1,200) and physics (2 percent or 500).

There has been substantial growth in the number of female Ph.D.s over the past few decades. Among graduates who received their degrees in 1960-64, women

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

Figure 2-1

Experienced S&E doctorates by field, gender, race, and disability status.

Source: Table A-1.1

Figure 2-2

Physical science doctorates by field, gender, race, and disability status.

Source: Table A-1.2

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

represented less than 5 percent (600), but they accounted for 25 percent (11,000) of 1985-89 graduates (see Figure 2-3).

Except for Hispanics, Ph.D. degrees awarded to underrepresented minorities have increased only modestly over this same time period. Degrees to African Americans, American Indians, and Hispanics together increased from about 120 in 1960-64 to 1,700 in 1985-89, an increase from 1 to nearly 4 percent of the total. Since the late 1970s, there has been virtually no increase in the number of underrepresented minorities receiving Ph.D.s in these fields.

The percentage of Ph.D.s in science and engineering who are disabled remained fairly constant at less than 1 percent between 1960 and 1989. Within that population, the numbers of individuals reporting disabilities were higher in the earlier cohorts and lower in the most recent group. When asked on the 1993 Survey of Doctorate Recipients, 340 of the 1965-69 graduates reported having a disability, compared to 170 of the 1985-89 graduates. This is not surprising, given the fact that disability increases with age, and the former group is approximately 20 years older than the latter.

Some additional information is known about the characteristics of the target population through the 1993 Survey of Doctorate Recipients. There are about 40,400 individuals from the national pool of experienced Ph.D. scientists and engineers who are underrepresented minorities, women, or disabled persons (see Table A-1.5

).

Figure 2-3

Percent female, underrepresented minorities, and disabled S&E doctorates: 1960-89.

Source: Table A-1.3

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

Half of this population (20,300) are employed in universities and four-year colleges, with another one-quarter (10,000) employed in private-for-profit companies (see Figure 2-4). Only 3,000 (or 8 percent) are employed in the federal government.

Of the 50 percent of the above target group employed in universities and four-year colleges, nearly half (9,400) of those are in research universities. They are divided fairly evenly across academic ranks, with about 25 percent each among full professor, associate professor, and assistant professor. The remaining 25 percent are instructors or adjunct faculty or hold non-faculty positions.

Attempting to understand what kind of work these individuals do is, of course, more difficult. However, 63 percent (25,300) of them report that they supervise others, and 79 percent (32,000) are involved in conducting research or development.

Master's in Engineering

Information on the characteristics of experienced individuals with master's degrees in engineering was drawn from the 1993 National Survey of College Graduates. As with the Ph.D.s, the pool contains only U.S. citizens working in a field "somewhat related" or "closely related" to their field of

Figure 2-4

Underrepresented S&E doctorates by sector of employment.

Source: Table A-1.5

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

study (72 percent of the total) who received their master's degrees between 1960 and 1989. Data are provided for engineering as a whole and for the following five areas: electrical and computer science, mechanical and industrial, civil and architectural, chemical, and other engineering fields (see Table Series A-2).

Women represent 6 percent (17,900) of this pool, with the highest percentage of women being in chemical engineering (11 percent or 2,700) and the lowest in electrical engineering and computer science (4 percent or 3,900) (see Figure 2-5).

Underrepresented minorities are 2 percent of the population, or about 5,700 individuals. Persons with disabilities constitute less than 1 percent, or about 1,300 individuals.

Since the early 1960s, women have increased their representation in engineering from 2 percent (400) of the master's degree recipients in 1960-64 to almost 13 percent (8,700) in 1985-89 (see Figure 2-6). Minorities (excluding Asian Americans) have increased from 200 to 2,000, to about 3 percent of the population. Experienced master's degree engineers who reported having a disability in 1993 average 0.5 percent or less of the pool regardless of when they received their master's degree, with the one exception of the earliest cohort of 1960-64 graduates (1.4 percent).

This population of engineers includes a pool of 23,800 experienced master' s-degree holders who are members of the target groups (see Table A-2.3).

Figure 2-5

Experienced master's in engineering by field, gender, race, and disability status.

Source: Table A-2.1

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

Figure 2-6

Percent female, underrepresented minorities, and disabled persons with master's in engineering: 1960-89.

Source: Table A-2.2

Seventy-two percent (17,100) of these engineers work for private-for-profit companies; 12 percent (3,000) work for the federal government; and only 4 percent (1,000) work for universities and four-year colleges (see Figure 2-7). As would be expected, almost two-thirds of them have over 10 years of professional experience, while the other one-third have 5 to 10 years of experience. Eleven percent (2,700) of them indicate that they are top or mid-level managers, executives, or those who manage other managers. Nearly 60 percent (14,000) of this target population are engaged in conducting research or development.

Findings and Conclusions

Based on these data, the committee finds that, even though the percentages are low, there are a substantial number of women, minorities, and disabled persons who are experienced scientists and engineers potentially eligible for employment at ONR. At the Ph.D. level, the numbers of women are higher in the biological sciences (24 percent) and lower in the physical sciences (9 percent) and engineering (3 percent). Even in physics, however, the committee estimates that there are 800 Ph.D. women with the appropriate background for possible ONR employment, and 1,600 female Ph.D.s in engineering. Among master's educated engineers, women are still a small percent (6

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

Figure 2-7

Underrepresented master's in engineering by sector of employment.

Source: Table A-2.3

percent), but that proportion doubles among those educated in the late 1980s. In general, the numbers of eligible women increase significantly among scientists and engineers who have completed their degrees in the past 10-15 years, providing many more potential candidates for ONR positions.

The picture for minorities is less positive; they remain at about 3 percent (7,300) of the Ph.D.s and 2 percent (5,700) of the master's engineers. Even among more recent cohorts (1985-89 graduates) they represent less than 4 percent (1,700) of the Ph.D.s and 3 percent (2,000) of the master's in engineering.

Overall, there are 40,400 Ph.D.s and 23,800 master's recipients who are women, underrepresented minorities, or disabled persons in these national pools of experienced scientists and engineers. Three-quarters of them work in academia or industry. Only 8 percent (3,000) of the Ph.D.s across all fields work for the federal government, with the highest concentration (10 percent) in engineering. Among master's recipients in engineering, only 12 percent (3,000) overall work for the federal government, with the highest concentration in civil and architectural engineering (20 percent or 1,100). If ONR is to identify and attract candidates from the national pool of experienced personnel, it will have to recruit more vigorously where most of those individuals are—in academia and industry.

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×
Recent Doctorate and Master's Recipients

As mentioned above, ONR indicated to the committee that it did not hire new or very recent graduates for its program officer or senior executive positions. However, the pool of recent degree recipients will soon become eligible for ONR positions, and it is useful in planning a long-term strategy for increasing diversity to examine some of the characteristics of this pool of potential ONR employees.

Ph.D.S in Science and Engineering Fields

For purposes of this study, recent Ph.D.s were defined as those receiving their degrees between 1990 and 1995, using data from the annual Survey of Earned Doctorates. As above, only U.S. citizens are included. Data tables are available in Table Series A-3.

In contrast to the earlier cohorts, Ph.D. recipients in the early 1990s are more diverse (see Figure 2-8). Of this population, 30 percent (16,700) are female, ranging from 15 percent (1,600) in engineering, 22 percent each in the physical sciences (3,200) and math and computer science (1,100), to 41 percent (7,800) in the biological sciences. Over half (3,000) of the new Ph.D.s in psychology are women.

Underrepresented minorities represent about 4.5 percent (2,400) of the new Ph.D.s, spread fairly evenly across fields except for mathematics and computer science, which have 2.9 percent (135). Disabled persons represent 1.2 percent (670) of the population. This percentage cannot be compared with the percentage of disabled persons in the more experienced pool because the question is asked differently on the two surveys from which these data are drawn (see the notes to Tables A-1.1 and A-3.1). In any case, the numbers in both pools are extremely small.

Within the physical sciences, women represent 27 percent (2,000) of the chemists and 24 percent (500) of the geologists, but still only 10 percent (400) of the physicists (see Figure 2-9). Non-Asian minorities (4 percent or 600) are represented in somewhat higher numbers in chemistry (5 percent or 300), as before, and less in physics (3 percent or 100). These data revealed about the same percent (1 percent) of disabled persons in the physical sciences as in the five broad fields overall.

Nearly 18,600 Ph.D.s have been awarded in the past six years to underrepresented scientists and engineers (see Table A-3.3). As is the case with all recent Ph.D.s, two-thirds of the degrees to members of underrepresented groups came from institutions in four regions of the country: South Atlantic, Middle Atlantic, eastern North Central, and Pacific. Research universities awarded 84 percent of the Ph.D.s to underrepresented scientists and engineers, only slightly less than the 87 percent awarded to all Ph.D.s.

Master's in Engineering

Data on recent master's recipients in engineering are available from the National Survey of College Graduates for 1990-93 only; 1994 and 1995 graduates are not included. AS with the Ph.D.s, U.S. citizens working in a field ''somewhat related" or "closely related" to their degree were included (see Table Series A-4).

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

Figure 2-8

Recent doctorates by field, gender, race, and disability status.

Source: Table A-3.1

Figure 2-9

Recent doctorates in physical sciences by field, gender, race, and disability status.

Source: Table A-3.2

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

The number of women receiving master's degrees in engineering in recent years has indeed increased; women represent 13 percent (7,400) of the population in this newer cohort, while they were only 6 percent (17,900) of the more experienced group (see Figure 2-10). Underrepresented minorities overall account for 4 percent (2,400). African Americans represent 3.7 percent (2,100) of this population, compared to 1.4 percent (4,100) of the more experienced group. American Indians and Hispanics, however, appear unchanged at less than 1 percent each. The number of disabled persons in the survey sample for this population was too small to permit an estimate.

There are approximately 9,300 engineers who are in the targeted population (see Table A-4.2), educated predominantly in electrical engineering and computer science or in mechanical and industrial engineering. As with Ph.D. recipients, they received their degrees primarily from schools in the South Atlantic, Middle Atlantic, eastern North Central, and Pacific regions of the U.S.

Findings and Conclusions

The data on degree recipients since 1990 show a much more diverse population. Women now receive 30 percent of the

Figure 2-10

Recent master's in engineering by field, gender, and race.

Source: Table A-4.1

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

Ph.D.s in the fields under study here, including 22 percent in the physical sciences. They have also doubled their share of the master's in engineering to 13 percent.

Minorities have increased fairly evenly across fields and now constitute nearly 5 percent of the total. African Americans have made important strides among master's recipients in engineering; they represent 4 percent of recent degree recipients. But American Indians and Hispanics have not increased measurably.

There are 18,500 female, minority, and disabled Ph.D.s who were educated between 1990 and 1995 in fields of potential interest to ONR. In addition, there are 9,300 members of those underrepresented groups who received master's degrees in engineering between 1990 and 1993. Combined with the population of experienced scientists and engineers, the committee believes ONR has an increasingly rich resource from which to draw in the future for its program officer and senior manager positions.

ONR's Current Science and Engineering Work Force

This section describes the demographic, educational, and employment characteristics of the 150 individuals who constitute the scientific and engineering work force at the headquarters of the Office of Naval Research. This work force includes 19 members of the Senior Executive Service (SES) and 4 GS 16 chief scientists who, for purposes of this study, will be grouped together and referred to as ''senior executives." It also includes 127 program officers at the GS 13, GS 14, and GS 15 levels.

Most of the information is drawn from data on the entire ONR S&E work force of 150, compiled from ONR's Office of Human Resources data base of February 1996. These data are presented in Table Series A-5.

Demographics

The S&E work force is relatively homogeneous in its basic demographic characteristics (see Figure 2-11). All 23 senior executives are white males. Of the 127 program officers, 111 are male and 16 are female; 12 are Asian Americans, and 1 is an African American male. Other than the one African American, there are no underrepresented minorities. According to ONR records, three individuals report having physical disabilities.

As stated earlier, because Asian Americans are generally not underrepresented in the science and engineering work force, most of this discussion groups them with their white counterparts. Because of the small number of minorities and persons with disabilities, no separate analysis by race or disability status is useful.

The ON-R S&E population spans more than four decades in date of entry into college, which can be used as a surrogate for age. Three-quarters of the work force entered college before 1970, putting them generally over age 45 (see Figure 2-12). As would be expected, 20 out of 23 of the senior executives entered college before 1970, and 11 entered college before 1960. Differences between the senior executives and GS 15s in age are negligible; however, over half of the program officers at the GS 13 and GS 14 grades entered college after

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

Figure 2-11

ONR S&E employees by demographic characteristics.

Source: Table A-5.1

1970. Seven program officers did not enroll in college until after 1980.

Findings and Conclusions

The data described above present a picture of a fairly homogeneous population. Like the national pools, the majority of the 150 scientists and engineers at ONR are male, white, and age 45-65. By its sheer numbers and similar characteristics, this group is likely to establish the dominant culture at ONR. By contrast, the 16 female scientists and engineers, who represent about 10 percent of the population, are generally younger.

The absence of any women or minorities among senior executives is evident. It is understandable that most of the senior managers would be white males, given the relatively small percentage of women and minorities in their age cohort and the lack of turnover at ONR. At the same time, though, no women or minorities have been hired or promoted into these positions, even when they did become vacant. Until senior executives become more diverse, the message of diversity to the program officers will have a limited effect.

Education

The doctoral degree dominates the educational background of the work force, especially at the higher grades (see Figure 2-13). All but one senior executive hold a

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

Figure 2-12

ONR S&E work force year of college entrance.

Source: Table A-5.2

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

Figure 2-13

ONR work force by grade and highest degree earned.

Source: Table A-5.3

doctoral degree. Two-thirds of GS 15s are educated to doctoral levels, though 11 (13 percent) have less than a master's degree. Almost half of the program officers at the GS 13 and GS 14 levels hold doctoral degrees. Overall, 63 percent of the male program officers and 53 percent of the female program officers in the data base have doctoral degrees.

Findings and Conclusions

Even with ONR's mixture of applied and basic research missions, the doctoral degree is still the preferred degree. With all but one senior executive and over half of the program officers, holding a doctoral degree, it is likely that promotional opportunities will be greatest among those with this advanced education. Women and minorities who are hired without this degree will have, in the committee's opinion, fewer opportunities for advancement (see section on "Recent Departures and Hires").

Employment Status

In order to compare ONR scientists and engineers with the national pool, the committee categorized them by five broad fields of employment, based on the occupational codes defined by the Office of Personnel Management (see note to Table A-5.1). The five fields are biological sciences, engineering, mathematics and computer sciences, and cognitive sciences. Data on the field of doctoral or master's degree for ONR employees were not

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

available. It is important to note that the field of employment at ONR does not necessarily identify the division or department in which an individual works.

With 78 percent of the work force, the physical sciences and engineering clearly dominate the fields of employment, reflecting ONR's mission and its current portfolio of research and development activities (see Figure 2-14). Half of the senior executives work in the physical sciences (especially physics and oceanography); the other half are spread fairly evenly across the other four broad fields: mathematics and computer science, engineering, biological sciences, and cognitive sciences. Almost half (44 percent) of the program officers also work in the physical sciences, with another 36 percent in engineering. The remaining 25 people (20 percent) work in mathematics and computer science, biological sciences, and the cognitive sciences.

By contrast, the 16 women in ONR are spread across the five broad field areas as follows: 2 in the physical sciences, 5 in engineering, and 9 in the other three areas. Looking at each field area separately, 3 percent of the scientists and engineers in the physical sciences are women and 10 percent of those in engineering. By contrast, one-third of those in mathematics and computer science (5 out of 15) and in the biological sciences (3 out of 10) are women. Only one woman out of eight employees is identified as working in the cognitive sciences.

Table 2-1 illustrates the distribution of the S&E work force by grade. Three-quarters of the S&E employees work at the GS 15 or senior executive level in each of the five field areas. Only half of the women occupy these ranks. By contrast, 5 percent of the overall work force are employed at the GS 13 level, while 31 percent of the women (all hired between 1990 and 1995) are GS 13s. As Figure 2-15 shows, women represent about 10 percent of all S&E employees at the GS 14 and GS 15 levels. They account for 63 percent, however, of the GS 13 employees.

The overwhelming majority of scientists and engineers (140) started work at ONR since 1980. This includes 20 out of 23 of the senior executives, 94 percent of the male program officers, and all 16 of the women. Since 1990, seven of the senior executives have joined ONR, along with 36 (one-third) of the male program officers and 13 of the 16 women (see Table 2-2). Overall, 23 percent of the employees who

TABLE 2-1 Distribution of ONR Work Force Across Grades

Grade

Total

 

Male

 

Female

 

Total

150

(100)%

134

(100%)

16

(100)

GS 13

8

(5%)

3

(2%)

5

(31)%

GS 14

28

(19%)

25

(19%)

3

(19%)

GS 15

91

(61%)

83

(62%)

8

(50%)

Sr. Executive

23

(15°)

23

(17%)

0

(0%)

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

Figure 2-14

Total and female ONR work force by field.

Source: Table A-5.4

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

Figure 2-15

ONR S&E work force by grade and gender.

Source: Table A-5.4

began work at ONR since 1990 have been women, compared to 3 percent before 1990 (see Figure 2-16). ONR has thus made progress in hiring women in recent years, but few are at senior levels.

Promotional opportunities by gender are very difficult to assess since each case is different. Educational background, job performance, time in grade, and personal preference may all affect an individual's opportunity for promotion in ways which are difficult to measure. The differential data of "target grades" on male and female program officers at ONR are significant. An individual's target grade is the highest grade to which the person can be promoted from his or her current position without an open competition. The target grade for each

TABLE 2-2 ONR Hire Date by Gender

Grade

Total

1965-79

1980-84

1985-89

1990-95

Total

150

10

32

52

56

Male

134

10

30

51

43

Female

16

0

2

1

13

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

Figure 2-16

ONR start date.

Source: Table A-5.5

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

position is set at the time of recruitment, based on the job responsibilities, and is indicated by the highest grade listed in the job announcement. Individuals hired at less than GS 15, for example, may or may not have GS 15 as their target grade. For the GS 13s and GS 14s in this population, 16 out of 28 (59 percent) of the positions held by men are targeted at GS 15, but only two out of eight (25 percent) of the positions held by women are targeted at GS 15.

Women and men employed at the same grade level are similar to one another in terms of salary. The median salaries for both male and female program officers range from $60,000 at the GS 13 level to $94,000 at the GS 15 level. The median salary earned by female program officers overall ($83,500), of course, is lower than that earned by male program officers ($90,600), a reflection of the higher concentration of women at lower grades and possibly of shorter time in grade.

Findings and Conclusions

ONR has hired a number of female scientists and engineers since 1990; 23 percent of the new hires in the past six years have been women, including two in the physical sciences. The overall number of women, however, continues to be small, especially in the physical sciences where the largest number of employees work. Although the ONR program in the cognitive sciences is very small, the proportion of women is also low. This is surprising, given the facts that six out of eight ONR cognitive scientists have their degrees in psychology and that over one-third of experienced Ph.D. psychologists are women.

Employees are concentrated at the senior executive and GS 15 levels. Women tend to be concentrated at the GS 13 level, partly because of their shorter tenure at ONR, but also because of the number of them who have been hired in at that level. This fact, coupled with the smaller percentage of the women program officers who have target grades of GS 15, suggests that promotional opportunities for women may be more limited.

Employment History

With help from ONR's Office of Human Resources, the committee was able to gather data on each individual's most recent and second most recent previous employers. Although, in the interviews, program officers stated that ONR scientists and engineers were recruited primarily from academia and industry, the data show that the majority came to ONR from elsewhere in the Navy. Seventy-nine percent of the current work force listed the federal government as their most recent employer prior to coming to ONR, and 61 percent listed the Navy (see Figure 2-17). Only 10 percent came directly from academia and 11 percent from industry. Data on each individual's second most recent employer show that nearly 70 percent came from the federal government, with 40 percent specifically from the Navy. Eighteen percent came from academia and 13 percent from industry.

The Navy was the most recent employer for 70 percent of the senior executives and 60 percent of the program officers. Of the female program officers, 13 out of 16 (over 80 percent) listed the federal government as their most recent employer, and half listed the Navy specifically. Ten specified the federal government as their second most recent employer.

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

Figure 2-17

ONR S&E work force by most recent previous employer.

Source: Table A-5.8

Despite the predominance of Navy experience, there are a significant number of ONR scientists and engineers who have some work experience outside the Navy. Only 38 percent of the current ONR employees, for example, worked for the Navy in both of their previous employment situations. The remaining 62 percent provide experience and knowledge from a variety of employment sectors.

Findings and Conclusions

The committee noted that a high percentage of employees came to ONR from elsewhere in the federal government, and especially from the Navy. This is in contrast to the description of the ideal program officer offered by some ONR employees—a faculty member managing a research laboratory at a large university. The expectation of previous Navy experience is understandable; ONR is part of the Navy, and its work must contribute to solving the Navy's technical problems. At the same time, though, this expectation—whether explicit or implicit—limits ONR's recruitment possibilities, especially among underrepresented groups since three-quarters of those individuals work in academia or industry. The committee believes there might be ways to give new employees experience in and orientation to the Navy without expecting prior Navy or federal employment.

The majority of ONR employees who have some recent work experience outside of the Navy constitute a valuable resource for recruiting. Their knowledge of

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

and contacts in academia and industry, or elsewhere in the federal government, could be very helpful in identifying qualified candidates for ONR positions from these other sectors.

Recent Departures and Hires

The committee was able to collect some information on employee departures. Based on records supplied by ONR, 87 scientists and engineers left ONR between 1988 and 1995. Seventy-eight of those individuals were white males, 5 were white females, 2 were African American males, and 2 were Asian American males. The number of departures has been fairly constant over this period—about 10 per year—with the exception of 1994 when that number doubled because of the reorganization of ONR. Assuming a population of at least 150 scientists and engineers during these years, the average annual attrition rate at ONR appears to be 6-7 percent.

The committee did not observe in these data a pattern of higher attrition among women or minorities than among white males, although the numbers are extremely small. Nevertheless, the committee suggests that tracking of attrition rates and exploring the reasons for employee departures through exit interviews can yield useful information about the work environment and any potential challenges in recruiting replacements.

From its reorganization in 1994 through March 1996, ONR hired 18 scientists and engineers: 11 men and 7 women. They were hired into physical sciences, mathematics and computer science, engineering, and biological science. For the physical sciences, the two women hires are the first to be employed as program officers.

The educational level of the men as a group is higher than that of the women, with eight males (73 percent) but only three females (43 percent) holding doctoral degrees. Four men were hired at the senior executive or GS 15 level, compared with two women hired as GS 15s. Only two men were hired at the GS 13 level, while four women were, including two Ph.D.s (see Figure 2-18).

Like their colleagues, these new ONR employees came generally from prior Navy employment. All but one of the 18 recent hires listed the federal government as their most recent previous employer; one came from industry. Eleven out of the 18 (61 percent) came directly from the Navy. Thirteen (72 percent) reported the federal government as their second most recent employer, with two from academia and three from industry.

All of the female new hires came from federal employment. Five of the women had been already employed by the Navy and temporarily assigned to work at ONR at the time of their hire (often called ''detailees''), including both women hired at the GS 15 level. Three of the seven had worked in academia or industry previously.

Findings and Conclusions

Based on its review of the limited data available on recent employee departures, the committee concludes that turnover is not high among the science and engineering personnel at ONR. This impression is reinforced by comments made in the interviews to the effect that retention is not a large problem at ONR. There are a number of very long-term employees, as

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

Figure 2-18

ONR S&E recent hires by start grade and gender.

Source: Table A-5.10

demonstrated by the data on start dates at ONR and, once there, individuals tend to stay. The committee did not attempt to interview scientists and engineers who had separated from ONR in recent years, but such an activity, if done systematically, could yield important information about the work environment and suggestions for improvements.

With regard to new hires, ONR is to be commended for successfully recruiting seven women in the past two years, including two in the physical sciences, two in engineering, and three in mathematics and computer science. These new hires represent almost half of the entire female S&E work force. The committee notes that, as a group, these women were hired in at lower grades than the men, and more women were hired without the doctoral degree. Although the numbers may be too small to indicate a pattern, ONR needs to be careful not to concentrate new women into positions from which they are less likely to be promoted or rise to positions of leadership.

The picture for minorities is not so positive. There is only one African American and no Hispanic or American Indian in the work force, and none of the 18 recent hires was a member of a minority group. Although the number of minorities with appropriate backgrounds for these positions is small, they do exist, and the committee could not find any evidence that ONR has yet risen to the challenge of finding and making the extra effort to recruit them.

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

Other Pools

Naval Research Laboratory Personnel

Because so many ONR employees come from the Navy, the committee believes that a potential pool of experienced scientists and engineers who also have Navy experience exists in the Navy laboratories, and especially at the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL). Time did not permit an extensive investigation into the various Navy research facilities, but the committee did review some basic demographic and employment data on women and minorities at NRL. Individuals at the GS 12 level were included in this analysis since they could potentially be eligible for positions at ONR as program officers.

Out of 1,677 scientists and engineers at the GS 12 through senior executive levels, 170 or 10 percent are women (see Figure 2-19). The physical sciences and engineering clearly dominate NRL's activities with 90 percent of the S&E work force. Three-quarters of the female scientists and engineers work in the physical sciences or engineering.

There are 44 individuals (less than 3 percent of the total) who are members of underrepresented racial or ethnic groups: 22 African Americans, 16 Hispanics, and 6 American Indians. Thirty-eight (or 86 percent) of these scientists and engineers work in the physical sciences and engineering, with the remaining 6 in mathematics and computer science.

NRL appears to have a relatively large population of disabled scientists and engineers (nearly 8 percent or 130). However, this includes everyone who reports a disability, which is a more inclusive definition than that used in the national surveys of doctoral and master's recipients.* Without further investigation, it is difficult to compare these data on disabled persons with those from other sources.

In terms of grade level, female scientists and engineers are generally represented in fewer numbers as their grades increase, ranging from 17 percent (80) of the GS 12s to 2 percent of the GS 15s (6) (see Figure 2-20). The senior executive ranks, however, are an important exception to this pattern; there are 4 women at this level, all in the physical sciences. These senior women, combined with their 6 female colleagues at the GS 15 level, would appear to be a potential source of recruitment for ONR senior executive positions.

Underrepresented minorities also populate the lower grades in greater numbers, with 31 (or 70 percent) of them in GS 12 or GS 13 levels. There are, however, 5 individuals at the GS 15 or senior executive level who might be eligible for senior positions at ONR.

*  

Both the Survey of Doctorate Recipients and the National Survey of College Graduates define disabled persons as "individuals who have severe difficulty seeing, hearing, walking, and/or lilting or are unable to perform these tasks." The Survey of Earned Doctorates defines disabled persons as "those individuals who indicated that they had a disability."

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

Figure 2-19

NRL S&E employees by field, gender, race, and disability status.

Source: Table A-6.1

Figure 2-20

NRL S&E employees by field, gender, race, and disability status.

Source: Table A-6.2

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×
ONR Principal Investigators

There are approximately 5,400 principal investigators (PIs) with contracts or grants funded by ONR. These individuals have an ongoing, working relationship with ONR program officers and, by definition, are engaged in work of interest to the Navy. They constitute, in the committee's opinion, a potential source of employees for ONR that does not appear to have been tapped. They might come to ONR as permanent employees or through the Intergovernmental Personnel Act (IPA), by which employees of organizations outside the federal government undertake short-term assignments in federal agencies.

Unfortunately, the data on principal investigators do not contain information on their gender, race/ethnicity, or disability status. A simple review of the names of the PIs, however, yielded a rough estimate that approximately 525 (or 10 percent) of them are women. Over half of these women were located in academia, with at least another third in government (see Figure 2-21).

Findings and Conclusions

Both NRL employees and ONR principal investigators can serve as potential pools for the recruitment of more women and minorities into ONR program officer

Figure 2-21

Female principal investigators by sector of employment.

Source: Human Resources Office, Office of Naval Research, 1996

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

and management positions. Most have the necessary technical background, as well as desirable experience in or with the Navy. Many may not be interested in giving up their research careers, of course, but no doubt some would be. The population at NRL seems particularly promising, especially if recruitment efforts are focused on those women, minorities, and disabled persons with doctoral degrees.

Comparison of ONR Employees With the National Pools

There are a significant number of women and minorities, and a growing number of persons with disabilities, among scientists and engineers who are or soon will be eligible for positions at ONR. Given the age, fields, and background of the majority of ONR employees, however, it is not surprising that few of them are members of these underrepresented groups.

First, the percentage of women, minorities, and persons with disabilities in the age cohort of most ONR employees is small. Figure 2-22 compares the year of college entrance of ONR employees with doctoral degrees to that of the national pool of experienced Ph.D.s (comparable data were not available for master's recipients). Among Ph.D. scientists and engineers who entered college before 1970, the proportion of women in the national pool does not exceed 15 percent. For each age cohort, the proportion of women in the ONR work force is still less than that in the national pool, but the ONR percentages are comparable to those in the national pool for 1960-69 and 1970-79.

Second, proportional representation by these groups has historically been small in the fields of greatest interest to ONR, namely the physical sciences and engineering. Among experienced Ph.D.s, the broad fields with the lowest percentages of women are the physical sciences (9 percent) and engineering (3 percent). Among experienced master's in engineering, women account for 6 percent.

Third, many ONR employees come from within the Navy or elsewhere in the federal government, which is true for only a small percentage of the target group. As the data on the available pools indicate, three` quarters of the underrepresented Ph.D.s who are likely to be eligible for ONR positions currently work in academia or industry, as do about 76 percent of the master's-educated engineers. Less than 8 percent of these Ph.D.s, and 12 percent of the master's in engineering, work in the federal government.

Given these limitations, the committee concludes that ONR has done a reasonable job of hiring women into its science and engineering work force. It has been less successful in hiring minorities, but its number of persons with disabilities exceeds the percentage in the overall pools. Each of these groups will be examined in turn.

Representation of Women

Table 2-3 compares the number and percent of women currently in the ONR S&E work force with the number and percent in the various national pools by field. In examining these data, it is important to remember that, given the small numbers involved, percentages (especially in the ONR work force of 150 people) must be used with caution. It would be unreasonable to expect ONR to attempt to match the percentage of women (or minorities) in each

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

Figure 2-22

National pool of experienced S&E and ON-R doctorate work force by year of college entrance and gender.

Source: Table A-1.4 and National Research Council, Special Tabulations, 1996.

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

TABLE 2-3 Percent of Women in the ONR Work Force and National Pools by Broad Fields

 

Total

Biological Sciences

Engineering

Mathematics & Computer Sciences

Physical Sciences

Cognitive Sci.* & Psychology

Group

#

%

#

%

#

%

#

%

#

%

#

%

ONR

16

10.7

3

3 30.0

5

10.0

5

33.3

2

3.0

1

12.5

Experienced

Doctorate

33,553

14.7

16,246

23.7

1,653

3.3

2,159

11.2

5,925

8.6

7,570

34.0

Master's

17,865

6.2

--

--

17,865

6.2

--

--

--

--

--

--

Recent

Doctorate

16,660

30.2

7,759

41.1

1,618

14.6

1,063

22.2

3,216

21.7

3,004

55.2

Master's

7,370

13.2

--

--

7,370

13.2

--

--

--

--

--

--

NOTE: The national pool for cognitive sciences includes Ph.D.s in the following fields of psychology: cognitive and psycholinguistics, comparative, experimental, industrial and organizational, personality, physiological, psychometrics, quantitative, social, and general.

SOURCE: Tables A-1.1, A-2.1, A-3.1, A-4.1, A-5.1

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

of its fields to the percentage in the national pool. In addition, a suitable applicant for employment at ONR in a particular group of fields (e.g., the physical sciences) will not necessarily have a degree in one of those fields. Scientists in many areas, and engineers especially, tend to work in fields different from that of their graduate education. With these caveats, the committee believes that Tables 2-3, 2-4, and 2-5 can help identify potential areas of underutilization.

How well is ONR doing at achieving representation of women, by field, compared with national pools? The box below summarizes the committee's findings.

The agency-wide representation of female scientists and engineers at ONR is good considering the age and experience of the current work force. ONR has clearly made efforts in the past few years to recruit women, and the ONR work force is now nearly 11 percent female, comparable to the percent of women in the national pools of experienced scientists and engineers (6-15 percent). However, more effort is needed to recruit or promote women into the higher management levels. Also, effort should be focused on the physical sciences where the representation of women at ONR still lags behind the pool of experienced female Ph.D.s. The gap appears to be easier to close in the cognitive sciences, given the larger representation of women in that pool.

Additional effort in the physical sciences and the cognitive sciences should pay off in the next five years, especially with the percentage of women among recent

FIELD

FINDING

RATIONALE BEHIND FINDING

Biological Sciences

meets a reasonable goal

Thirty percent of ONR biologists are women. This is better than the national pool of experienced Ph.D. biologists (24 percent), though below the more recent supply (41 percent).

Engineering

meets a reasonable goal

Ten percent of ONR engineers are women, far better than the 3-6 percent in the experienced pools of Ph.D.s and master's recipients and almost at the 13-15 percent level of the recent graduates.

Math and Computer Science

exceeds a reasonable goal

Thirty-three percent of ONR mathematicians and computer scientists are women. This far exceeds the 11 percent of women in the experienced Ph.D. pool and even the 22 percent in the recent graduate pool.

Physical Sciences

needs improvement

Three percent of ONR physical scientists are women, while women constitute 9 percent of the experienced Ph.D. pool and 22 percent of the recent graduates.

Cognitive Sciences

needs improvement

Twelve percent of ONR cognitive scientists are women, compared to 34 percent in the experienced pool and 55 percent of recent graduates.

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

graduates nationally ranging from 13 to 30 percent. For example, assuming ONR maintains its current size, the hiring of an additional 10 women would bring its overall percentage of female scientists and engineers to 17 percent, comparable to the 15 percent in the pool of experienced Ph.D.s and the 30 percent of recent doctorates.

Separate efforts will need to be made to recruit or promote at least two or three women (9-13 percent) into the senior executive ranks, regardless of field, and to help ensure that women employees in all fields have opportunities for promotion comparable to those of their male colleagues.

Representation of Minorities

Because of the presence of only one underrepresented minority at ONR little can be said about the comparison of the ONR work force with the national pools. Table 2-4 does provide the percent of underrepresented minorities in each of the national pools by field, which can be used as a guide to future recruitment. Across all fields, a minority population at ONR of 5 to 6 scientists and engineers out of 150 would approach the 3-4 percent in the overall pools.

Representation of Persons with Disabilities

Table 2-5 describes the number and percent of persons with disabilities in each of the national pools. As with minorities, the number of persons with disabilities at ONR (three) is too small to permit comparisons by field. The overall percentage of persons with disabilities in the ONR work force is 2 percent, which is higher than the 0.5 percent in the pool of experienced doctorates and the 1.2 percent among recent doctorates.

Summary

The human resource pool from which ONR can draw is larger and more diverse than in the past. There are today a significant number of women and minorities who are experienced scientists and engineers. Also, their representation in the cohort of recent doctoral and master's recipients is growing. There are women and minorities at NRL who would be eligible for positions at ONR and who have the advantage of Navy experience, as well as female researchers who are already ONR principal investigators. These pools are rich resources from which to draw as ONR continues to increase its diversity.

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

TABLE 2-4 Percent of Women in the ONR Work Force and National Pools by Broad Fields

 

Total

Biological Sciences

Engineering

Mathematics & Computer Sciences

Physical Sciences

Cognitive Sci.* & Psychology

Group

#

%

#

%

#

%

#

%

#

%

#

%

ONR

1

0.7

0

0.0

1

2.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

0

0.0

Experienced

Doctorate

7,343

3.2

2,248

3.3

1,403

2.9

661

3.4

1,857

2.6

1,173

5.3

Master's

5,666

2.0

--

--

5,666

2.0

--

--

--

--

--

--

Recent

Doctorate

2,416

4.5

834

4.4

459

4.1

135

2.9

555

3.8

433

7.9

Master's

2,386

4.3

--

--

2,386

4.3

--

--

--

--

--

--

NOTE: The national pool for cognitive sciences includes Ph.D.s in the following fields of psychology: cognitive and psycholinguistics, comparative, experimental, industrial and organizational, personality, physiological, psychometrics, quantitative, social, and general.

SOURCE: Tables A-1.1, A-2.1, A-3.1, A-4.1, A-5.1

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×

TABLE 2-5 Percent of Women in the ONR Work Force and National Pools by Broad Fields

 

Total

Biological Sciences

Engineering

Mathematics & Computer Sciences

Physical Sciences

Cognitive Sci.* & Psychology

Group

#

%

#

%

#

%

#

%

#

%

#

%

ONR

3

2.0

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

Experienced

Doctorate

1,484

0.6

289

0..4

264

0.5

199

1.0

517

0.8

216

1.0

Master' s

1,292

0.4

--

--

1,292

0.4

--

--

--

--

--

--

Recent

Doctorate

664

1.2

218

1.2

119

1.1

64

1.3

186

1.3

77

1.4

Master's

0

0.0

--

--

0

0.0

--

--

--

--

--

--

NOTE: The national pool for cognitive sciences includes Ph.D.s in the following fields of psychology: cognitive and psycholinguistics, comparative, experimental, industrial and organizational, personality, physiological, psychometrics, quantitative, social, and general.

SOURCE: Tables A-1.1, A-2.1, A-3.1, A-4.1, A-5.1

Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×
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Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
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Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
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Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
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Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
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Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
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Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
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Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
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Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
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Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
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Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
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Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
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Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
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Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
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Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
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Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
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Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
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Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
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Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
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Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
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Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
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Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
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Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
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Page 38
Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×
Page 39
Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×
Page 40
Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×
Page 41
Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×
Page 42
Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×
Page 43
Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×
Page 44
Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×
Page 45
Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×
Page 46
Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
×
Page 47
Suggested Citation:"2 Profiles of the Science and Engineering Work Force." National Research Council. 1997. Building a Diverse Work Force: Scientists and Engineers in the Office of Naval Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5837.
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Page 48
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