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INTRODUCTION 12 ENGINEERS AND ENGINEERING IN THE CULTURAL CONTEXT Traditional Views of Engineering The popular conceptions of engineering in America have their roots in the founding of the country, in its astonishingly rapid progression from an isolated colonial upstart at the edge of the civilized world to a leading economic power. Those conceptions are interwoven with the tradition of American inventivenessâ of "Yankee ingenuity"âand with our popular reverence for such figures as Ben Franklin, Eli Whitney, Thomas Edison, Alexander Graham Bell, Henry Ford, and other practical-minded inventors whose achievements helped to shape the nation. The "can-do" attitude remains an essential part of the American self- image, whether it is applied to landing on the moon or to finding new medical treatments and cures. Over time, the commonplace view of the engineer has acquired a certain range of definition. On the one hand, he (although the situation is now changing rapidly, the traditional image of the engineer has been distinctly male) is the facilitator of "progress," of economic strengthâa builder of bridges, dams, and cities; an expander of transportation, communication, and energy systems. It is largely from this notion that the concept of the "heroic engineer" is derived: the rugged tamer of the wilderness, in his mackinaw and laced boots. On the other hand, the engineer is also the purveyor of technologyâof the labor-saving device that shapes home life and the workplace as well as the machine that powers industry. In this incarnation, the engineer feeds America's fascination with the clever gadget, the technically impressive. Here, he is the "wizard," closely allied with the scientist in the popular view. These laudatory conceptions are by no means universal. In other countriesâ Great Britain, for exampleâthe engineer is traditionally held in considerably lower esteem, as something more akin to a mechanic or other tradesman (Secretary of State for Industry, 1980). And in the United States, the image of the engineer has proven not to be an immutable one. Changing demographics of engineers may be one reason. Early engineers came from the dominant WASP social sector; but in this century, at least until recently, entering engineers have come to a large extent from immigrant groups struggling to acculturate and achieve status (Noble, 1977). However, a more fundamental reason for the changing view of engineers is that mistrust of technology and dissatisfaction with its fruitsâeven fear of its consequencesâhas become a significant new element in American society, one that is kept ever