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APPENDIX A
The Definition of Engineering and
of Engineers in Historical Context
Donald G. Weir~ert
Among the most challenging tasks in the work of the Panel on Infra-
structure Diagramming and Modeling was that of establishing an oper-
alole definition of engineering and engineers on which to base data
collection and analysis. Indeed, such a definition was critical to the
work of all the panels of the Committee on the Education and Utiliza-
tion of the Engineer. The essence of the challenge was the need to
reconcile the philosophical and theoretically based definitions cur-
rently propounded lay scholars and some professional engineering orga-
nizations with the practical realities of the working world.
At issue is not so much what engineering work is, though its diver-
sity and complexity certainly present definitional challenges. Rather,
the central point of contention seems to lee who is entitled to lee called
an engineer. The basis for that contention ranges from concern that
unqualified practitioners might harm public health, safety, and welfare
to a somewhat elitist rejection of those perceived as not holding the
"proper" credentials. Among these credentials, the most often cited by
those advocating more stringent theoretical definitions are graduation
from an accredited engineering program and/or some type of legally
. .. . ... .
recogn1zec . licensing or cert1~1cat1on process.
A review of the historical evolution of the terms engineer and engi-
neering used by scholars, writers, engineering academicians, and pro
Engineers.
Donald G. Weinert is executive director of the National Society of Professional
71
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72
APPENDIX A
. . . . . . . . . .
fess~onal engineering organizations Is Instructive In coming to grips
with the definitional challenge.
The word engineer stems from the Latin ingenium, meaning natural
talent or capacity; also, a clever invention. The words ingenuity and
engine also stem from ingenium. In addition, the word engine has as
now-obsolete meanings "ingenuity" and "wile." Its current meanings
include "something used to effect a purpose; agent or instrument."
People acting as agents or instruments to effect a purpose are quite
correctly referred to as engines of that purpose. Thus, the current mean-
ing of engine goes beyond the commonly used mechanical device or
machine used for converting various forms of energy into mechanical
force or motion. So, too, does the word engineer, which is just as close
to the word ingenuity as it is to the word engine. Thus, the modern
words engineer, engineering, ingenuity, and engine are all related
through common ancestry, and engineer does not relate solely to the
word engine in its narrower meaning of mechanical device or machine.
Unfortunately, in early usage the word engineer specified almost
exclusively a military engineer. Tertullian appropriated the word inge-
nium in its meaning of "a clever invention" to describe Clattering rem,
which through usage came to apply to any kind of military engine. The
words ingeniator, ingeniarius, and ingegerus all identified builders of
military machines hence the modern-day association of the word
engineer with machines and the general use of that word in society for a
variety of functions associated with machinery and mechanical equip-
ment. The significance of this evolution is that the terms engineer and
engineering have never been, nor can they ever be, the sole province of
the engineering profession as we define it today.
Of course, engineering as an activity of man manipulating nature
to produce something needed or desired has taken place since the
beginning of human history and has been well documented in the
literature of all ages. The legendary Daedalus " engineered" the Cretan
labyrinth and invented wings to escape. ~ The existence of engineering
as a profession, however, is a relatively recent phenomenon. Attempts
to apply formal definitions to engineering and later to the engineer
parallel the emergence of a definable engineering profession.
In discussing definitions it is important to note that the words engi-
neer and nature are etymologically related. Ingenium means "natural
capacity or talent" and relates to the inherent nature of people and
things. This acquires special significance when one studies the many
definitions of engineering over time. Those definitions have consis-
tently contained three principal elements, either explicitly or implic-
itly. First, they link engineering with "the forces of nature"; second,
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APPENDIX A
73
they refer to "the use or good of man"; and third, they specify or imply a
special knowledge and skill relating to natural or physical phenomena.
The latter element is implicit in early definitions and descriptions of
engineering activity and explicit as "a knowledge of the mathematical,
natural or physical sciences" in later descriptions as a recognizable
body of engineering knowledge began to take form.
One of the first formal definitions of engineering was that put for-
ward in 1828 by Thomas Tredgold in the charter of the Institution of
Civil Engineering in England. Tredgold defined engineering as " the art
of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and conve-
nience of man." That definition contains the three classic definitional
elements: the "great sources of power in nature"; "use and conve-
nience of man"; and the special knowledge and skill relating to physi-
cal and natural phenomena implied by the phrase "the art of directing
the great sources...." I&lost early definitions, and those in modern
dictionaries, contain the same three elements.
In the earliest descriptions of engineering there was a perceived need,
especially by engineers, to distinguish between science and engineer-
ing to establish engineering as an activity independent of but related
to science. That need was fueled in part by the desire of those engaged in
engineering to achieve status as a separate and identifiable profession.
Public recognition of engineers as a group distinct from scientists is
found as early as 1830 when Auguste Comte in Coors de philosophic
positive observed: "Between scientists in the strict sense of the word
and the actual managers of production, there is beginning to emerge in
our days an intermediate class, that of the engineers, whose particular
function it is to organize the connections between theory and prac-
tice."
A compilation of the views of engineering and scientific society lead-
ers published by the National Society of Professional Engineers ASPEN
in 1963 demonstrates the preoccupation with making the distinction
between engineering and science. It also reveals consistency with ear-
lier definitions of engineering wherever engineering is defined sepa-
rately. It is interesting to note that while the engineering and scientific
functions are well covered in the 1963 compilation, there are very few
attempts at defining an engineer or a scientist except in terms of func-
tions. Clearly, as stated by W. L. Everitt, then Dean of Engineering at
the University of Illinois, "It is easier to distinguish between the 'scien-
tific function' and the 'engineering function' than to distinguish
between the man who should be called a scientist and who should be
termed an engineer. Many men perform both functions, and do it very
well...."
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74
APPENDIX A
As alluded to earlier, the real definitional difficulties began when the
engineering profession, as represented lay its leaders and the engineer-
ing societies, began to add to the traditional definitions of engineering.
Most notably, they added a fourth element, as in the definition of the
Engineers Council for Professional Development tECPD), specifying
that the knowledge and skill explicitly or implicitly required for engi-
neering should lee acquired by "study, experience or practice." It was
then a short step to defining an engineer first in terms of the type of
knowledge and skill required; second, lay how it was acquired; and
finally, by what type of evidence is necessary to show it had been
acquired. Evidence of " study" translated to graduation from an accred-
ited engineering program, and evidence of " experience" and "practice"
are in part reflected in licensing and certification procedures. Some
engineering organizations, notably NSPE, even advocate the use of
licensing as a means to show evidence of study, experience and prac-
t~ce.
As noted alcove, adding the academic credential to the definition of
an engineer, and, when applied, adding the practice/experience creden-
tial, have complicated the lousiness of describing the engineering pro-
fession. Those credentials exclude many, including those with edu-
cational backgrounds in science and those without either a four-year
accredited engineering degree or a license, who are nonetheless per-
forming what has traditionally been described as an engineering func
tion.
The emergence of the engineering technologist with a four-year
Bachelor of Engineering Technology degree has exacerbated the defini-
tional dilemma and provided further impetus in some circles for tight-
ening definitions because of the similarities between the educational
programs for the engineer and the technologist.
In the late 1970s, under the umbrella of what was then ECPD, now
Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, many of the engi-
neering societies participated in a comprehensive review of definitions
including that of engineering, the engineer, and the engineering tech-
nologist and technician. Their report, entitled The Engineering Team,
was approved lay the ECPD Board of Directors in 1979. It contained the
following definitions and explanatory notes.
Engineering
Engineering is the profession in which a knowledge of the mathematical
and natural sciences gained lay study, experience and practice is applied with
judgment to develop ways to utilize, economically, the materials and forces
of nature for the benefit of mankind.
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APPENDIX A
75
Engineer With a strong background in mathematics, the basic physical
sciences, and the engineering sciences, the engineer must be able to interre-
late engineering principles with economic, social, legal, aesthetic, environ-
mental and ethical issues, extrapolating beyond the technical domain. The
engineer must be a conceptualizes, a designer, a developer, a formulator of
new techniques, a producer of standards all to help meet societal needs. The
engineer must plan and predict, systematize and evaluate must be able to
judge systems and components with respect to their relation to health, safety
and welfare of people and to loss of property. Innovation must be central to the
engineer.
The engineer will normally have received the first professional degree from
an accredited engineering program, which requires a minimum of one-half
year of mathematics, beginning with differential and integral calculus. Edu-
cation in engineering analysis and synthesis shall prepare the engineer to
enter the profession with potential for further development in research,
design, development, management, establishment of systems, and transla-
tion of concepts into realities. An engineering education is the principal route
to professional licensure.
Engineering Technology
Engineering Technology is that part of the technological field which
requires the application of scientific and engineering knowledge and methods
combined with technical skills in support of engineering activities; it lies in
the occupational spectrum between the craftsman and the engineer at the end
of the spectrum closest to the engineer.
Engineering Technologist The engineering technologist must be applica-
tions-oriented, building upon a background of applied mathematics through
the concepts and applications of calculus. Based upon applied science and
technology, the technologist must be able to produce practical, workable
results quickly; install and operate technical systems; devise hardware from
proven concepts; develop and produce products; service machines and sys-
tems; manage construction and production processes; and provide sales sup-
port for technical products and systems.
Normally, the engineering technologist will hold a 4-year degree from an
accredited engineering technology program. Because of the key role as an
implementer, the engineering technologist must lie prepared to make inde-
pendent judgments that will expedite the work without jeopardizing its effec-
tiveness, safety or cost. And the technologist must be able to understand the
components of systems and be able to operate the systems to achieve concep-
tual goals established by the engineer.
Engineering Technician With a minimum of two years of post-secondary
education, ideally in engineering technology, with emphasis in technical
skills, the engineering technician must be a doer, a builder of components, a
sampler and collector of data. The technician must be able to utilize proven
techniques and methods with a minimum of direction from an engineer or an
OCR for page 76
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OCR for page 77
APPENDIX A
77
engineering technologist. He/she shall not be expected to make judgments
which deviate significantly from proven procedures.
The technician should expect to conduct routine tests, present data in a
reasonable format, and be able to carry out operational tasks following well-
defined procedures, methods, and standards.
In addition, the 1979 ECPD report contained a matrix depicting the
engineering team See Figure AM .
The definition of engineering in the ECPD {ABET) report remained
unchanged from that first developed by ECPD in 1961 and varies little
from that put forth by Tredgold in 1828 except for the addition of the
"by study, experience and practice" element. However, the definitions
of engineer, technologist, and technician became much more detailed,
including a greet deal of explanatory materiel. Emphasis was put on the
differences in academic credentials among the three. As to function, it
is clear that all three fall within the definition of engineering, albeit at
different levels-hence the term the engineering team.
Another definition of note is that of the National Council of Engi-
neering Examiners {NCEE~ Model Law ~1978 revision). Section 2 con-
tains the following definitions:
1. Engineer The term "Engineer," within the intent of this Act shall
mean a person who, by reason of his special knowledge and use of the mathe-
matical, physical and engineering sciences and the principles and methods of
engineering analysis and design, acquired by engineering education and engi
. . . . ,. . . . .
neerlOg experience, IS qua Alec . to practice englneermg.
2. Professional Engineer The term "Professional Engineer," as used in
this Act, shall mean a person who has been duly registered and licensed as a
Professional Engineer by the board.
3. Engineer-in-Training The term "Engineer-in-Training," as used in
this Act, shall mean a person who complies with the requirements for educa-
tion, experience and character, and has passed an examination in the funda-
mental engineering subjects, as provided in this Act.
4. Practice of Engineering The term "Practice of Engineering" within
the intent of this Act shall mean any service or creative work, the adequate
performance of which requires engineering education, training and experi-
ence in the application of special knowledge of the mathematical, physical
and engineering sciences to such services or creative work as consultation,
investigation, evaluation, planning and design of engineering works and sys-
tems, planning the use of land and water, teaching of advanced engineering
subjects, engineering surveys and the inspection of construction for the pur-
pose of assuring compliance with drawings and specifications; any of which
embraces such services or work, either public or private, in connection with
any utilities, structures, buildings, machines, equipment, processes, work
systems, projects, and industrial or consumer products or equipment of a
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78
APPENDIX A
mechanical, electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic or thermal nature, insofar as
they involve safeguarding life, health or property, and including such other
professional services as may lee necessary to the planning, progress and com-
pletion of any engineering services.
Quite understandably, the focus of the NCEE definitions is on quali-
fications and on the licensed engineer, who is referred to as the Profes-
sional Engineer. The definition of the Practice of Engineering is also
substantially more detailed because it attempts to define the many
types of engineering work covered by the Model Law. The introduction
of the term Professional Engineer to describe only licensed engineers
has further confused the definitional picture in that to some it implies
that nonlicensed engineers may somehow be unprofessional.
Finally, confronted with the practical challenge of collecting and
analyzing data, over a period of time the National Science Foundation
developed eight criteria for determining who should be counted as a
member of a given field of science or engineering. The criteria included
those
1. who had earned a master's degree or higher in a coincident field of
study and who regarded themselves, based on their total education and
experience, as having a coincident profession;
2. who had earned a Ph.D. in any field of social or natural science and
were employed in a coincident occupation;
3. who had earned a bachelor's degree or higher in a coincident field
of study and were employed in a coincident occupation;
4. who had earned a bachelor's degree or higher in any field of study,
were employed in a coincident occupation, and regarded themselves as
having a coincident profession;
5. whose highest degree was in a coincident field of study at any
degree level and who were employed as a college president, a college
dean, or a manager or administrator of research and development, pro-
duction, or operations; or who had earned a bachelor's degree or higher
in a coincident field of study, were employed in a related occupation,
and regarded themselves as having a coincident profession;
6. who had earned a bachelor's degree in a coincident field of study
since 1969 and who regarded themselves as having a coincident profes-
s~on;
7. who had earned a bachelor's degree or higher in any field of sci-
ence and were employed as a college president, a college dean, or an
administrator or manager of research and development, production, or
operations and who regarded themselves as having a coincident profes-
s~on; or
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APPENDIX A
79
8. whose highest degree was in a related field of study and who were
employed in a coincident occupation and who regarded themselves
professionally to be a college president, a dean, or an administrator or
manager of research and development, production, or operations.
Summing up the definitional issue, several points are clear. First, the
definition of engineering is extremely broad and can accommodate a
wide range of practitioners; second, that range involves level of func-
tion, area and type of practice, jolt titles, academic background, and
experience; and third, to portray and understand the engineering enter-
prise in the United States adequately, all of those substantively
involved in that enterprise must lee accommodated in the definitional
frameworks adopted, whatever the level and type of academic, experi-
ence, or practice credentials.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
regarded themselves
