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OCR for page 12
Undergracluate Students
Demographic Forces
The number of engineering graduates who will seek employment in
the decade ahead is very difficult to predict. It is a complex function of
many variables, some of which are confirmed, some partially under-
stood, and some conjectured. There are three principal elements in the
supply of engineering graduates: {1 ) the high school graduates' popula-
tion {the potential based; ~2J the percentage of qualified applicants from
that base who enter engineering programs; and ~3J the retention of
engineering students.
The Population Base
The number of 1 8-year-olds in the U. S. population through the year
2000 rests on well-established projections. Only the migratory drift of
families will further affect regional populations. It is generally thought
that, barring unforeseen political or economic events, the current pat-
tem of migration will produce a minor but reinforcing effect on the
existing population-age characteristics already established in each
region.
The Westem Interstate Commission for Higher Education published
a projection of high school graduates through 2000 [McConnell and
Kaufman, 1984) that indicated a 22 percent decrease nationwide
between 1982 and 1991, roughly approaching the low point of the
12
OCR for page 13
UNDERGRAD HATE S TUDENTS
900
`~ 800
in
:3
o
A)
UJ
'< 700
O 600
A:
UJ
m
Z 500
01 1 1 1 1 1
1 984
Southeast/
South Central
-
-
-
_-
.~
-
/
-
West '~
~Northeast
1987 1990 1993
13
1996 1999
YEAR
FIGURE 1 U.S. high school graduates: projections for 1984-1999. SOURCE: Based on
McConnell and Kaufman ( 1984).
period. All but 10 states share in the decrease, which in absolute num-
bers is a decline of approximately 590,000 high school graduates from a
base of 2.712 million. Figure 1 shows that the decrease in graduates
varies widely among regions of the country between 1984 and 1999.
Comparison of the future population of high school students with
the current geographical distribution of engineering students reveals a
new dimension of the problem that lies ahead. In 1981 - 1982, half of the
B.S. degrees in engineering nationally were awarded lay only 45
schools, all of them graduating more than 400 engineering students. Of
those schools, about 60 percent are located in the North Central and
Northeastern regions of the country, where population decreases are
projected to be the most severe. Fifteen of the 45 colleges are in Massa-
chusetts, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, states in which the
high school population will decrease an average of 40 percent between
1982 and 1993. Thus, these highly industrialized and often " high-tech"
North Central and Northeastern areas could be severely affected by the
projected demographic shifts.
OCR for page 14
14
ENGINEERING UNDER GRAD HATE ED UCATION
Engineering colleges in the North Central and Northeastern regions
must either recruit outside their regions, as some already do, or work
intensively to increase the percentage of qualified regional high school
graduates who apply for engineering programs. Admissions experience
of independent and public institutions, with the exception of a very few
national universities, shows that the vast majority of students attend a
college within a 250-mile radius of their homes.
Applications to Engineering Programs
Engineering enrollments, when charted since World War II See Fig-
ure 2J rise and fall appreciably and are almost independent of the high
school population j see the key to the figure, which associates enroll-
ment peaks and valleys with national forces). Enrollments between
1945 and 1982 responded to the perceived market for engineering man-
power. These historical swings indicate considerable elasticity in the
interest in engineering among potential college applicants.
As shown in Figure 2, the current surge of undergraduate enrollment
is explained in part lay a new factor in addition to the traditional
source Male applicants), the pool now includes women, minorities,
and additional foreign nationals. {Asian-American minorities have
been strongly represented for many decades. ~
In 1975, 8.7 percent of college-bound high school seniors intended to
pursue engineering, while in 1982 that number reached 14.4 percent.
Of college-bound seniors in 1982 whose Scholastic Aptitude Test iSAT)
scores were over 1000 j the top 30 percent of the total tested~,21 percent
indicated that they intended to study engineering. If the existing appli-
cant pool is to be maintained, that percentage of 21, assuming that it is
evenly distributed, would have to reach about 35 percent in those
regions where the high school population base will shrink by 40 per-
cent. Nationwide, with a future high school applicant pool at 78 per-
cent of its 1982 level, about 28 percent of college applicants will need to
be interested in engineering programs for 1982 applicant levels to be
. .
mamtame( ..
The Panel on Undergraduate Engineering Education recommends
that, if the flow of engineering graduates is to be maintained despite
majordemographic changes, a verysubstantial effort will be required to
increase the number of high school students who are qualified and
motivated to study engineering. Both the traditional sources and the
increasingpool of women and minorities must be nurtured to maintain
the present quality of engineering students.
OCR for page 15
UNDERGRAD DATE S TUDENTS
1 20,000
1 05,000
In 90,000
UJ
~75,000
z
~60,000
of
111
C) 45,000
Oh
30,000
1 5,000
_
~1
_g
I
I `%
I
l
I
First-Year Enrollments
/ 10
/ / BS Degrees
:,,,"
.` _'
D MS Degrees
PhD Dearees
1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985
YEAR
1. Returning World War I I veterans
2. Diminishing veteran pool and expected surplus of engineers
3. Korean War and increasing R& D expenditures
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Returning Korean War veterans
Aerospace program cutbacks and economic recession
Vietnam War and greater space expenditures
Increased student interest in social-program careers
Adverse student attitudes toward engineering, decreased space and
defense expenditures, and lowered college attendance
9. Improved engineering job market, positive student attitudes toward
engineering, and entry of nontraditional students (women, minori
ties, and foreign nationals)
10. Diminishing 1 8-year-old pool
A Manual on Graduate Study in Engineering issued, based on 1945
Committee Report chaired by L. E. Grinter
B ASEE Evaluation Report recommends greater stress on mathematics
and science and the engineering sciences.
C ASEE Committee on the Development of Engineering Faculties recom-
mends the doctorate for future engineering faculty.
D ASEE Goals of Engineering Education recommends the master's de-
gree for the majority of those who complete their undergraduate
degree in the coming decade.
15
FIGURE 2 Engineering degrees and first-year enrollments: historical factors affecting
engineering enrollments. SOURCE: LeBold and Sheridan ( 19861.
OCR for page 16
16
Influences on Admissions
ENGINEERING UNDER GRAD UATE ED UCATION
The engineering admissions process varies considerably among
institutions between public and independent institutions and
between large, public multiuniversities and public state colleges and
among states. Highly selective engineering colleges have entering
freshmen with median combined SAT scores in the 1200 to 1400 range.
In many states, colleges of engineering are required to accept all high
school graduates above a given rank in class or record on achievement
tests. In states with good school systems, setting the class rank suffi-
ciently high results in extremely well-qualified students.
While the applications:admissions ratio is often taken as a measure
of selectivity, a self-selection process is also at work in engineering
education. That is, students who have a weak background in science
and mathematics do not usually enter the admissions competition, so
that almost all applicants possess the minimum requirement, which is
sometimes as low as a 450 SAT score in mathematics. Furthermore,
admissions standards can vary with the perceived size of the applicant
pool. In periods of low interest in engineering, some schools lower their
standards of admission in order to "fill the freshman class." In periods
of high interest in engineering, many schools raise their admissions
standards, thereby increasing their selectivity. Clearly, policy determi-
nations and practices of admissions staff exert a strong influence on the
numbers and quality of students entering engineering.
Elasticity
On a national or regional basis, the variety in types of institutions
increases students' opportunity for access to engineering education. As
long as at least some institutions have space, this diversity of opportu-
nity gives the system elasticity. As the last 10 years have shown, with a
relatively modest increase in the resources allocated to undergraduate
education, this ability of the system to absorb additional students
reached a factor of 2 before saturation.
Transfer Students
First-year enrollment is one path to engineering education; a second
is the transfer student route. Again, the process varies among institu-
tions. In some cases transfer students compensate for attrition during
the first two years of engineering study. The size of this flow is charac-
teristically in the range of 10 percent per year, although some colleges
OCR for page 17
UNDERGRAD HATE S TUDENTS
17
may admit as many as 30 percent transfer students each year. In gen-
eral, the transfer process is more selective than that of freshman admis-
sions. Experience shows that transfer students do as well as other
engineering students. ~
Especially in the public sector, many states have established a feeder
system whereby pre-engineering students begin in two-year programs
or institutions and, if successful in those, transfer to upper-division
engineering curricula. The number of such transfer students is essen-
tially limited by the number of upper-division places available in given
curricula. As cost factors become more critical, particularly for stu-
dents, two-year programs will probably become major feeders to four-
year engineering schools.
Dual-degree programs were begun in the 1960s. Their major purpose
has been to add a combined liberal arts/engineering dimension to
higher education rather than to contribute to the central flow of under-
graduate engineering manpower. These programs are usually of the
"3 + 2" type: the student obtains both liberal arts and engineering
degrees in five years. Dual-degree programs have been utilized to a
limited extent to increase the entry of minority students and women
into engineering. Overall, dual-degree programs have not produced a
significant flow of engineering graduates because the demand has not
been significant and because few of these programs dovetail effectively.
Factors Affecting the Quality of High School Graduates
Between 1978 and 1984, at least 20 comprehensive studies of U.S.
school systems cited major deficiencies: loss of basic purpose, alo-
sence of clearly identified goals, and low expectations of students. Most
striking is their fundamental unanimity on the keynotes sounded in A
Nation at Risk [Gardner et al., 1983), the 1983 report to the nation and
the Secretary of Education by the National Commission on Excellence
in Education.
These studies present virtually conclusive evidence that, because of
weaknesses in its educational system, our nation is dangerously at risk
in several ways. For example, our technological supremacy erodes as
other nations expand their own capacities. One threat to our ability to
compete results from a shortage of skilled engineers and scientists and
from a lack of scientific and mathematical literacy {Education Com-
mission of the States' National Task Force, 1983~. Such literacy will lee
* Davidson and Montgomery 119831 summarize 17 of these reports.
OCR for page 18
18
ENGINEERING UNDER GRAD UATE ED UCATION
essential if citizens of this nation are to support a technologically
advanced society.
From 1964 to 1981, the percentage of high school students complet-
ing courses in science and mathematics declined as follows: in biology
from 80 to 77 percent, in chemistry from 34 to 32 percent, in general
science from 61 to 37 percent, in algebra 1 from 76 to 64 percent, in
geometry from 51 to 44 percent, and in algebra 2 from 35 to 31 percent
{Adelman, 1983J. This loss of interest is alarming, considering that
Japan and the Soviet Union recognize that world leadership depends on
technological superiority. It has been said that "the technological bat-
tle with the Japanese is really an industrial equivalent of the East-West
arms race" Julian Gresser, quoted in Grayson, 1983. See also Stata,
1983J.
Insufficient Time Commitment
The United States has long depended on its schools to educate its
citizens for world leadership. However, a minority of U.S. high school
students study mathematics for three years, whereas other industrial-
ized nations require all students to start mathematics {other than
arithmetic orgeneralmathematicsJ, biology, physics, end geographyin
grade 6. The class hours spent on these subjects in other industrialized
countries is about 3 times that spent even by U.S. students who select
four years of science and mathematics in secondary school Gardner et
al., 1983:20J. Hurd {1982:2J found "that 93 percent of the seniors com-
pleted one or more years of mathematics, 67 percent two years or more,
and 34 percent three years." The consensus of the recent studies of
schooling is that all students should have three years of mathematics;
some studies recommend four years, at least for those who plan to
attend college Third, 1982J.
Only 41 percent of students in academic programs study science for
three years in high school tend only 13 percent of general-studies stu-
dents and 9 percent of vocational-studies studentsJ. The consensus
among the studies referred to here is that all students should have three
years of science, and some of the reports recommend four years of basic
science courses for college preparation. Hurd {1982J finds students
begin with biology and follow with chemistry ~37 percentJ and physics
{19 percentJ; others "complete their three years of science with a selec-
tion from biology 2, earth science, physiology, space science, aeronau-
tics, oceanography, physical science, geology, ecology, environmental
science, or from a host of one semester courses. " This jumble is what A
Nation at Risk describes as curricula "homogenized, diluted, and dif
OCR for page 19
UNDERGRAD HATE S TUDENTS
19
fused to the point that they no longer have a central purpose. In effect,
we have a cafeteria-style curriculum in which the appetizers and des-
serts can easily be mistaken for the main courses" t Gardner et al.,
1983: 18~.
LowExpectations of Students
The reports on U.S. school systems show that our nation's schools
and colleges are not demanding enough of students. "Homework for
high school seniors has decreased {two-thirds report less than 1 hour a
night) and grades have risen, yet average student achievement has
declined. In 13 States, students are given freedom to choose half or
more of the units required for high school graduation. Given such
freedom to choose the substance of their education, many students
select less demanding personal service courses, such as bachelor liv-
ing" [Gardneretal., 1983:19-20~.
Under such conditions, College Board achievement scores in aca-
demic areas such as English and physics have declined in recent years.
Nearly 40 percent of 1 7-year-olds cannot draw inferences from written
material, only one-fifth can write a persuasive essay, and only one-third
can solve a mathematics problem requiring several steps. Science
achievement scores of U.S. 17-year-olds as measured by national
assessments of science in 1969, 1973, and 1977 have declined steadily
Gardner et al., 1983~.
The pattern of courses that high school students take and their low
achievement are greatly influenced by college and university admis-
sions requirements. Whatever the causes E.g., the growing intensity of
competition for a declining pool of students or other influences, these
requirements in many cases are so low that students are not prepared
for college work: One-quarter of the mathematics courses in collegiate
institutions are remedial {Gardner et al., 1983:8~. Nor are many high
school graduates prepared for an occupation. Business and military
leaders complain that without remedial work in reading, writing, spell-
ing, and computation, many high school graduates cannot even begin
the sophisticated training they need for their work.
Lack of Student Interest in Science and Mathematics
The list of reasons why so many students fail to master the skills they
need for the study of science, mathematics, and other academic sub-
jects grows with each analysis. The causes include lack of discipline in
the classroom, overemphasis on socialization, automatic grade promo
OCR for page 20
20
ENGINEERING UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION
lion, teacher disillusionment, tolerance of absenteeism, emphasis on
educational opportunity without equal attention to quality, grade infla-
tion, lowering of college entrance requirements, unfavorable study
environments in the home, lack of homework, loss of public confi-
dence in and support for schools, and unclear educational goals and
policies. For whatever sociological or educational reasons, too many
students lose interest in learning and simply evade it.
U.S. students' dislike of science courses is acquired early-nearly
half of them dislike science by the end of the third grade, and 79 percent
by the eighth. The popularity of mathematics declines from a high of 48
percent in grade 3 to a low of 18 percent in grade 12. This loss of interest
clearly affects the nation's pool of scientists and engineers, as shown,
for example, in a study by Aldridge and Johnson ~ 1984J that traces the
loss of scientific talent from the 4,170,000 members in the freshman
high school class of 1977-1978: 302,400 of these students ~7.3 percents
entered study of science and engineering Engineering 115,300~ as
college freshmen in 1981-1982; an estimated 83,100, or 2 percent of
the original high school class, would graduate in those fields {32,300 in
engineering). At the graduate level, an estimated 0.4 percent of the
freshman high school class of 1977-1978 ~16,680~ would earn M.S.
degrees, and 0.1 percent 4,170 would earn doctorates in science and
. .
engmeermg.
Of the total 71,470 engineering baccalaureates projected for 1985,
32,300 would be from the original pool of 1977- 1978 high school fresh-
men. The remaining 39,170 would include approximately 13,000 for-
eign nationals and 26,000 other Americans who had been out of high
school for more than four years. The latter group comprises mostly
transfer students and students who had left and returned to engineering
programs. Of 32,000 M.S. degrees projected to be earned in 1987 in all
fields of engineering, science, and mathematics, nearly 17,000 will be
awarded to U.S. students who graduated from high school in 1981;
6,000 will be awarded to foreign nationals; and 9,000, to other Ameri-
can students. Of the 7,700 Ph.D. degrees expected in these fields in
1989, 4,200 will go to students from the high school class of 1981;
2,300, toforeigu nationals; and 1,200, to Americana who did not pursue
engineering or scientific studies continuously after high school gradua
tion.
One reason for the loss of such a high proportion of talent from the
original high school pool is the inappropriateness of high school science
and math courses for the 92.7 percent who will not become scientists or
engineers. Current courses are often obsolete and of questionable value
for the 7.3 percent who may do so, since these courses largely ignore the
OCR for page 21
UNDERGRAD HATE S TUDENTS
21
computer, modern electronics, and much of the new knowledge that
has been generated so rapidly over the past 10 years. Present courses
focus on pure science and are largely devoid of practical applications,
technology, or the relevancy of science to society's problems, such as
acid rain, nuclear wastes and disposal, or improper nutrition.
Diminished Incen fives
Although only implicitly stated in the literature, another reason for
diminished interest in education is that students lack incentives to
learn. Few of them, including some of the most talented, discover the
pleasure of learning for its own sake. In the past, incentives for Ameri-
can students included living up to parents' expectations, meeting
teachers' expectations and receiving rewards for their efforts, and in
some cases having the opportunity to attend college. Students now
have little reason for developing the self-discipline to learn which the
work ethic imbued in their Puritan or other immigrant forebears. The
belief that education would guide their hard work to success was incul-
cated in their parents, and that same conviction is evident today in
many of the Oriental engineering students whose families insist on
education as the road to success in America.
Since incentives are not as strong as they once were, engineering
societies and social agencies have attempted to provide them. The
Junior Engineering Technical Society iTETSJ sponsors clubs, national
team competitions, science fairs, and precollege programs. Other
incentives programs are usually offered in inner-city environments,
where educational problems are acute. These model programs, which
include Mathematics, Engineering, Science Achievement tMESAJ in
California; Philadelphia Regional Introduction for Minorities to Engi-
neering jPRIMEJ in Philadelphia; and Massachusetts Pre-engineering
Program for Minority Students [MassPepJ in Boston, offer encourage-
ment and guidance to students who are talented in mathematics and
science and who want to enrich their schooling. Such programs were
designed to bring into engineering those underrepresented minorities
who accept the challenge to education. They demonstrate efforts that
might be made or adapted in all schools and systems to inspire the
scholarship that is needed.
MESA was one of the first model programs to state its goals, which
included "Encouraging students from the target minority groups to
acquire the academic skills they need to major in mathematics, engi-
neering, and the physical sciences at a university; Promoting career
awareness . . . and Striving to institutionalize the educational enrich
OCR for page 22
22
ENGINEERING UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION
ment activities that prepare minority group students...." Its activities
include tutoring; independent study groups; academic, university, and
career counseling; and summer enrichment and employment. MESA
offers scholarship incentive awards, and has high expectations in terms
of student performance.
MassPep in Boston offers a Saturday Lab Program supported by scien-
tists, weekly club meetings to discuss technical issues and projects,
and has conducted a successful summer program. The organization is
planning to hold monthly assemblies of students and teachers for lec-
tures, contests, and exchange of information. Its computerized records
track students' academic and personal progress for use in counseling.
The students involved in the program know individuals who care about
and encourage their progress.
Teacher Shortages
The studies of U.S. schools referred to at the beginning of this section
agree that there are too few qualified teachers of science and mathemat-
ics. As indicated in A Nation at Risk "Gardner et al., 1983:22-23J, too
many teachers come from the lowest quarter of their classes. Since
about 41 percent of the time of elementary school teacher candidates is
spent in education courses, less time is available for subject matter
courses. Moreover, in 1981, 43 of 45 states had shortages of mathemat-
ics teachers, 33 of these states reported critical shortages of earth sci-
ence teachers, and all lacked physics teachers. Half of the newly
employed mathematics, science, and English teachers are not qualified
to teach these subjects. These shortages exist despite widespread pul:-
licity about an oversupply of teachers.
Many good students turn away from teaching because of the poor
condition of the profession. The public is well aware of the problems of
classroom management, including the burden of administrative as
well as disciplinary duties. Furthermore, teachers lack control over
such basic academic matters as curricular design and selection of text-
books [Sizer, 1984J. * More personal detriments to undertaking a teach-
ing career are the low pay and limited career line. If the low beginning
salary and the national average salary of $17,000 per year after 12 years
of teaching do not tempt math and science teachers to jump to industry,
the limited career line often does. A teacher has roughly the same
* The Sizer ( 19841 study examined high schools, lout the statement applies to school
systems as well as to individual schools.
OCR for page 33
UNDERGRAD HATE S TUDENTS
33
research projects and intermittent teaching opportunities. Recognition
of achievement motivates further achievement.
In order to attack the faculty shortage problem by encouraging the
best students to consider careers as engineering faculty members, the
ASEE's Engineering Deans' Council has adopted the following policy
statement:
At least 1000 intelligent and highly motivated individuals with doctoral
degrees in engineering will lie needed every year as faculty members in insti-
tutions of higher learning in the United States. Charged with the critical
responsibility of educating prospective engineers, these individuals must
enjoy the challenges and satisfaction of teaching, the excitement of research
at the very frontiers of knowledge and the freedom of self direction. The
opportunities for a lifelong, productive, satisfying and rewarding career are
unlimited. *
In addition, the Deans' Council has prepared an attractive brochure for
use by faculty and students to encourage the lest students to seek
academic careers.
Financial Considerations
The main reason cited for the decision to forgo graduate study is the
substantial difference between graduate stipends and industrial sala-
ries. One 1980 survey found that the average annual, part-time salary of
graduate assistants was $4, 200, as compared with $24,000 reported for
full-time, entry-level jobs of B.S. graduates at that time. Such a differ-
ential results in lost income that takes many years to recover. Conse-
quently, graduate stipends need to be increased to at least half of the
starting salaries of B. S. graduates. With regard to those who ultimately
pursue an academic career, American Association of Engineering Soci-
eties [AAESJ salary survey data {"Mean Salaries of Engineers in Indus-
try and Academia: 1983" J show that the salaries of full professors ton a
12-month basis J compare favorably with salaries of their counterparts
in industry. With the possibility of additional earnings from summer
work and consulting, an academic career is in a strong competitive
position. Nevertheless, academic salaries for assistant and associate
professors are a key problem and need to be improved in many institu-
tions in order to be competitive.
~ l'ol~cy statement endorsed in January 1984 by the Executive Committee of the
Engineering Deans' Council, American Society for Engineering Education.
OCR for page 34
34
ENGINEERING UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION
The Consortium on Financing Higher Education has studied the
question of whether undergraduate and/or graduate student loan debt
accumulation is a disincentive to the pursuit of graduate education.
Their most recent study ~ 1983~ shows that, except for its effect on some
minority students, undergraduate educational loan debt burden has
essentially no effect on the decision to pursue postbaccalaureate study.
The Panel on Undergraduate Engineering Education recommends
that, in addition to support forgraduate education, engineering schools
and professional societies create and maintain an active campaign to
emphasize the advantages of an academic career. Industry, govern-
ment, engineering schools, and professional societies must encourage
and support masters-level programs, combined B. S. -M. S. programs,
and release time to enlarge and develop thepool of potential faculty.
The Role of Minorities: Present and Future
The Minority Share in Engineering
The minority engineer is one of the scarcest professionals in Ameri-
can society. In 1970 blacks, Hispanics, and native Americans made up
about 2.4 percent of the U.S. engineering work force; lay 1982 that
percentage had doubled. Percentages of the total U.S. population for
these minorities were 16.1 percent in 1970 and 25.2 percent in 1980. At
the opposite extreme are Asian/Pacific Islanders. The 1980 census
showed this group made up 2.7 percent of the U.S. population, while
their 1983 proportion of the U.S. engineering work force was 4.8 per-
cent. Thus, Asian/Pacific Islanders' 9.2 percent of the intraminority
population in 1980 provided 50.9 percent of the minority engineering
presence in the work force in 1983. Comparable percentages
jintraminority population/engineering presences for blacks, Hispan-
ics, and native Americans were 50.5/20.4, 27.2/25.8, and 1.5/5.4,
respectively. Table 1 shows that, overall, the potential talent for engi-
neering within a substantial part of the population has remained dor
mant.
The statistics in Table 1 and those from other sources show progress,
but not nearly enough. Clearly, except for Asian-Americans these par-
ticular minorities have not achieved representative participation in
engineering. The profession will need talent from these minorities as
well as from other sources to keep abreast of technological change as
demographic trends and weak educational practices shrink the pool of
talent. Finally, minority engineers can be an important American
OCR for page 35
35
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OCR for page 36
36
ENGINEERING UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION
resource for international relationships and Third World development;
if well educated, they might become the most effective of our nation's
representatives to the Third World.
Loss of Interestin Science andMath
The greatest barrier to increasing the pool of talent for engineering is
students' loss of interest in science and mathematics at all stages in
their education. As indicated earlier in this chapter, by graded, slightly
more than half of all students show an interest in science, and 48
percent are interested in math. By grade 8, 21 percent like science, and
by grade 12 only 18 percent like math. Furthermore, a rational longitu-
dinal study ~Berryman, 1983:66, 68~ of the high school class of 1972
showed that only 37 percent of the males and 30 percent of the females
originally enrolled in a science field had obtained a B.A. degree in
science or were enrolled in a science field by 1976.
The policy implications of such statistics as those cited above are
[1J the need to develop strategies to increase the size of the initial
scientific/mathematical pool of minorities before and during high
school and j2J the need to decrease attrition from the pool at every stage
of the educational process. While individual intellectual development
cannot be programmed, schools can determine the amount of time that
students spend on different subjects, the quality of their curricula, and
the performance standards for grade promotion and high school gradua-
tion. In these areas of control, public elementary and secondary schools
do not serve many children well in science and mathematics. The
deficiencies matter most for those youth {i.e., females and minoritiesJ
who do not have compensating resources and encouragement outside
of~school.
Blacks are more likely than any other group to leave the educational
pipeline, except between the baccalaureate and the master's degree.
Hispanics drop out more frequently than do whites at each stage in the
pipeline through college entry. This may result in part from their immi-
gration from countries with different school systems or from family
mobility. Their dropout rate is average or lower than average after
college entry. American Indians have a very high dropout rate between
entering college and earning the B.A. degree. These different patterns
imply that the needs of subgroups vary at different points in the pipe-
line. The dropout rate for another minority group, Asian-Americans, is
lower at each stage than that of any other group, including whites; the
Asian-American share of the pool increases at each level.
OCR for page 37
UNDERGRAD UATE S TUDENTS
Asian-Americans
37
Asian-Americans are the most inclined of any group to pursue quan
t~tat~ve stuc ties:
In 1979, a randomly selected Asian-American was 17 times more likely to
earn a quantitative Ph.D. than a randomly selected black from the appropri-
ate age group.... Asian-Americans chose Quantitative studies] at almost
twice the t 16% ] national average; whites and Hispanics, at; about the national
average; American Indians, at about 80 percent of the national average; and
blacks, at about 60 percent of the national average. tBerryman, 1983:494
Asian-American college freshmen are clearly high achievers from high
achieving families. They have the highest percent of second generation col-
lege a third, for example, have at least one parent with graduate education;
the highest average high school performance {B+~; and the highest average
educational expectations three-quarters plan a postgraduate degree....
Forty-eight percent attend universities, and of those 60 percent are in the
most selective universities. Thus, almost a third of all Asian-Americans in
postsecondary institutions are in the most selective universities, and another
13 percent are in the nation's most selective four year colleges. (Berryman,
1983:94-951
Because of their achievement, Asian-Americans have a higher percent
, . . . . . . . .
age ot participation in englneenug than any other group.
Barriers to EntryInto Engineering
With regard to quantitative study, the major barriers to non-Asian-
Americans' entry into the engineering profession are insufficient prep-
aration in mathematics and science, little awareness of and motivation
toward engineering, lack of money, lack of self-confidence, and per-
sonal problems {Landis, 1982~.
To overcome the lack of academic preparation, it is necessary "to
identify promising students early in their academic careers, give them
appropriate guidance in choosing a program of study, and ensure the
availability of quality curriculum and instruction" Richardson,
1979:7 ~ . The lack of a math sequence and of other precollege courses is
"compounded for the inner city student by the familiar problems of
inadequately informed teachers and guidance counselors, absence of
role models, unengaging curriculum, and an atmosphere not particu-
larly supportive of academic achievement" Theodore Lobman, quoted
in Richardson, 1979:7~. Students need to perceive their educational
experiences as coherent and continuous over many years to develop
their academic aspirations and behavior.
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38
ENGINEERING UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION
To overcome the lack of information, engineering as a profession
must loe presented clearly to students and their parents. Minority indi-
viduals have generally tended to enter professions in which they work
alone, such as medicine or law, or in which they work with other
minorities, for example, teaching and social service. Prospective stu-
dents and their parents need to lie convinced of the marketability, the
personal, human, social, and economic attractiveness of science and
engineering careers. Knowing that financial aid is available for success-
ful students is another strong motivator for families without adequate
funds for education {Richardson, 1979:5~.
Attrition is a greater problem for non-Asian-American minorities
than for white students in college. Minorities need support systems:
counseling, especially lay minority faculty members; tutoring by fac-
ulty or students; short courses in specific techniques; study groups;
videotaped instruction; and modules for self-paced study. They some-
times need to be given flexibility in their academic progress through
"stretch-out" programs, reduced course loads, and leaves of absence,
although, of course, they must ultimately be capable of meeting all of
the kinds of demands that will be made of them and their fellow grad-
uates as engineers {Richardson, 1979:11~.
Institutional factors can also discourage minorities. For example,
minority students may have great difficulty adjusting to the environ-
ment of a predominantly white institution. Elitist attitudes, poor
teaching, and a general insensitivity to students affect the performance
of all students but may have an especially negative effect on minority
students. Many students, especially those who commute, find the
institutional environment impersonal, and they often feel isolated and
even alienated. Minority students can mistakenly attribute their sense
of isolation and alienation to being in a minority, not realizing that
other students experience similar feelings ; Landis, 19 8 2: 7 14, 7 1 8 ~ .
Minority students need a special kind of support to ease their transi-
tion from high school to college. The college environment is demand-
ing, fast paced academically, less structured than high school, and
socially permissive at the very time that studies require a new single-
mindedness and intensity of purpose. Some colleges offer summer pro-
grams to introduce minority students to collegiate study of calculus,
physics, chemistry, and the humanities.
Support of Minorities
More than one organization is focusing its efforts on the precollege
level junior and senior high school to identify minority persons
OCR for page 39
UNDERGRAD HATE S TUDENTS
39
with the apparent aptitude to succeed in engineering. Minority Engi-
neering Education Effort, Inc., provides the names of such students to
colleges and universities. The National Society of Black Engineers
invites students and their parents to a spring event to discuss engineer-
ing, co-op and summer job opportunities, and the educational demands
of college.
Consortiums in densely populated areas use a wide variety of com-
munication methods, including classroom demonstrations, career
days, science fairs, and field trips to engineering schools and industrial
sites. Minority engineers and minority engineering students who work
with secondary school students act as role models by introducing the
students to the field of engineering and the methods and products of
technology {Richardson, 1979:6~. The centers for these activities are
often connected with a university {e.g., Mathematics, Engineering,
Science Achievement {MESA) with the University of California at
Berkeley and schools in other states, and METCON with Howard Uni-
versity in Washington, D.C. ~ as well as with staff and resources of local
industries and government agencies. They offer Saturday morning
and/or afterschool programs, laboratory study, weekly club meetings,
monthly seminars of all participants, summer programs of study and
summer employment, math and science contests, and scholarships.
At the collegiate level, the Minority Engineering Program {MEP)
operates statewide from the same Berkeley center as MESA. It offers a
full program of assistance with matriculation, academic counseling,
particular emphasis on orientation and adjustment to the institutional
environment, a concerted motivational program, the development of a
supportive environment, a component for building study skills, a com-
prehensive and accessible tutoring program, close monitoring of stu-
dent progress, personal counseling, a mechanism for social interaction,
and career development. MEP builds a strong sense of belonging by
arranging various exercises to help students get to know each other and
through which they learn to value each other's help. Exercises are
organized, for example, to develop study skills, to teach students how
to use their time effectively, and to motivate them by study of career
possibilities. Finally, MEP places students in summer jobs in which
they gain first-hand knowledge about engineering and the environment
that engineers work in, and also develop confidence that they can work
in that environment Landis, 1982:714, 715, 717) .
Education of minorities is supported in part by efforts of the National
Action Council for Minorities in Engineering {NACME), which enlists
substantial funding from fewer than 50 companies. A survey of
NACME scholars ~LeBold et al., 1982) found that 96 percent of the
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40
ENGINEERING UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION
graduates indicated that they were planning some type of postbacca-
laureate graduate education. In order to retain more minorities in engi-
neering, the graduates recommended more tutoring, financial aid,
counseling and advising, and improved precollege preparation
[Richardson, 1979:13~.
Standards of Performance
Special attention for minority students is necessary to help them
overcome barriers to the expression of their talent, but it must not
mislead them about the professional demands they face. Lindon E.
Saline, manager of the Professional Development Operation of General
Electric, prepared a list of key conditions of employment for profession-
als from minority groups [Richardson, 1979:14, 15, 22J:
1. Hire minority engineering graduates only if they are qualified for
real tasks, not for purposes of show or tokenism.
2. Minority engineers, in accepting the opportunity to compete,
should know their responsibilities and be measured and rewarded
fairly.
3. Minority engineers must be expected to develop new technical,
economic, and political knowledge to apply to evolving design, produc-
tion, and application needs through new interpersonal and process
skills.
4. Engineers must have the flexibility and resilience to cope with
uncertainty and change in engineering employment.
5. All parties must have patience and persistence to see the minority
engineering effort through to a successful conclusion.
And, finally, Saline states that we need a national initiative to
1. Establish long-range goals and objectives For attracting minori-
ties to engineering education and practice];
2. Accelerate expansion of the pool of prepared, motivated minority
high school students;
3. Identify localities where programs are needed; develop strategies,
both general and specific; and assign responsibilities;
4. Obtain adequate funding; and
5. Develop continuous monitoring of program progress and effec
tlveness.
The one-fourth of our population that now provides less than 6 per-
cent of our engineers namely, the black, Hispanic, and native Ameri-
can segments of the population could significantly enlarge the pool of
OCR for page 41
UNDERGRAD HATE S TUDENTS
41
engineering talent. Of even more importance, such an increase would
expand the portion of Americans who participate in their nation's most
important source of power and individual well-being its economic
life.
The Panel on Undergraduate Engineering Education recommends
that extensive efforts by schools, companies, and engineering societies
are needed to bring more minorities into engineering. For example,
precollege programs such as those operating in a few major cities and
regions of the country must be expanded and funded to prepare and
motivate minority students to pursue college study and careers in engi-
neenng.
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Greenfield, Lois, Elizabeth Halloway, and Linda Remus. 1981. "Retaining Academi-
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Purkey, Stuart C., and Marshall S. Smith. 1982. "Too Soon to Cheer? Synthesis of
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~D ~^ ~ T~!
43
Wilson,}ames^1977.~oz~Co~~1jv~uc~bon-~[jonQj~SsCsS
. PrcpaIed for the Office of Planning, Budgeting and Evaluation, U.S. Deparr
ment of Education.
Wilson, fames ad, and Dana Einstein. 1982. ~n [~]oycr Desc#tio~ of ~ odd
[~]o~r Code Education Program {Boston: Northeastern University).
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Science Foundation).
women in Engineering. 1983. Notes prepared for Advisory Committee to Assistant
Director for Engineering, National Science Foundation. Washington, D. C., }ply.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
undergraduate education
