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OCR for page 1
Executive Summary
Needs of the Engineering Profession
Common SectorNeeds
Many engineering support needs were found to be common to all
the sectors academia, government, industry, private practice, and
society at large studied lay the Panel on Support Organizations for
the Engineering Community. In a number of instances, the support
mechanisms themselves were also common. Because of their shared
nature, a brief discussion of these common needs and concerns seems
appropriate.
Technical Competence. Maintaining technical competence has a
high priority for practicing members of the engineering community.
This. issue has become increasingly critical because of the ever-acceler-
ating expansion of scientific and technical knowledge. This need not
only manifests itself in the effective execution of state-of-the-art engi-
neering work, but in the informed review and quality control of such
work. Interestingly enough, practicing engineers express little need for
continuing education resulting in academic credit. Short courses, sem-
inars, and workshops appear to be regarded as the most effective mech-
anisms for providing continuing technical education opportunities. It
must be recognized, however, that 1- or 2-day seminars merely skim
the surface of a new technology. To be successful, they must leave the
1
OCR for page 2
2
SUPPORT ORGANIZATIONS
engineer motivated toward further study and well informed concerning
additional technical or instructional resources.
renumber of support organizations address this need. Their effective-
ness depends upon the investment of time, effort, and money that
individual engineers or the employer are willing to dedicate. Typical
support organizations include professional societies, technical soci-
eties, educational institutions, trade associations, and government
agencies.
Information Exchange. The rapid, simultaneous, and multifaceted
advances occurring in scientific and technological knowledge have
resulted in a formidable information overload for practicing engineers.
The wealth of technical literature is overwhelming and increasingly
unmanageable due to volume and diversity. Yet engineers are expected,
practically instantaneously, to know of, understand, and use new con-
cepts, new material, and new constraints.
Fortunately, as the volume of rapidly changing technologies grows,
communication means are also improving rapidly. Computer/word-
processing systems can now transfer vast amounts of information, and
access to such information is becoming more readily available.
This rapid trend toward computerization has resulted in a major
corollary need: technical competence in the computerization process
itself. This need is particularly significant to practicing engineers who
were not exposed to computer skills as part of their academic l~ack-
ground.
The support organizations that must meet this need are similar to
those related to maintaining technical competence, and include the
professional and technical societies, educational institutions, govern-
ment agencies, and the media.
ProfessionalDevelopment. Engineers regard themselves as profes-
sionals and as such feel a need to associate with their colleagues for the
purpose of strengthening their profession as a whole, identifying and
resolving common problems, presenting a positive image of engineer-
ing to the general public, examining opportunities for career develop-
ment, developing policy statements related to their profession, and
sharpening their professional skills.
Engineers also have an ongoing need to maintain a strong sense of
pride and continue the contributions to society that are hallmarks of
the engineering profession. This atmosphere requires interaction
among the various engineering disciplines employed in the various
sectors of the engineering community.
Frequently, the urgency of maintaining technical competence over
OCR for page 3
EXEC UTIVE S UMMAR Y
3
shadows the need to enhance the stature and contribution of the profes-
sion as a whole. The professional and technical organizations must
take the lead in meeting this need, although engineering educational
institutions also should seek to establish the concept of professional-
ism as part of the educational process.
Professional Standards. Professional standards and ethics are sul'-
jects of major concern to all engineers, in regard to both intraprofes-
sional conduct and responsibility to the public. Differing from the
question of general ethics, which involves basic philosophical ques-
tions about human existence, professional ethics involve guidelines for
the solution of ethical problems related to the practice of a profession,
problems that arise from day to day for its members. Codes of ethics
have been developed by the various technical and professional engi-
neering organizations, lout a strong need for review, interpretation, and
discussion of these standards appears to exist within all engineering
sectors, either in the sector as a whole or in its individual engineers.
This need has been accentuated lay isolated but widely publicized
instances of unethical conduct on the part of prominent engineers.
There also appears to be an acknowledged need for greater emphasis
on ethics within the engineering college curriculum. Engineering stu-
dents generally demonstrate a high degree of interest and concern when
given the opportunity to discuss ethics within the profession.
The professional and technical societies are the basic resources for
promulgation and monitoring of codes of practice and ethical conduct.
State registration laws provide the legal framework for enforcement of
those standards affecting public welfare and safety, but the question of
intraprofessional ethics and conduct is frequently outside that domain.
Existing support organizations include professional and technical
societies, engineering educational institutions, state legislatures, and
state boards of registration.
Specific SectorNeeds
Although sharing these common concerns, each sector of the engi-
neering profession is also characterized by a unique set of needs. For
example, marketing development skills are vital to the engineer in
private practice and in some types of industry but of lesser concern to
engineering college faculty or government employees. On the other
hand, opportunities for attending professional meetings and seminars
may be much more limited for faculty and government engineers
because of legislative, funding, and/or administrative regulations.
Financial compensation is another example of varying needs. The
OCR for page 4
4
S UPPOR T ORGANIZATIONS
marketplace generally determines pay scales in the private sector,
while compensation in the public sector {government or academia is
usually determined by legislation.
Some needs, while common in a general sense, are sector-specific
with regard to priority and significance. Management capability, for
example, is noted as an essential skill by all sectors, particularly as
related to ongoing career development. The private practice group,
however, viewed this need as absolutely critical to the continued via-
bility of the sector itself. Because of this intense concern, it is included
as a specific concern of private practice engineering.
It is interesting to note that the needs of one sector of the engineering
profession may potentially conflict with the needs of another sector.
Although government-employed engineers express a desire to increase
their state-of-the-art technical competence by performing hands-on
technical work, negative pressures are exerted by engineers in private
practice who regard this type of technical involvement as competition
and therefore threatening.
The following summary presents those specific needs identified as
significant to a particular sector of the engineering community. [These
needs are in addition to the common needs and concerns previously
described. ~ Detailed discussion of the rationale supporting each sector-
specific need, as well as the major support organizations and mecha-
nisms required to meet those needs, is included in later chapters of this
report.
Academic Sector. The Academic Sector Task Force, comprising
representatives of both academia and other areas, identified the needs
and support organizations and mechanisms felt to be most important
for both the individuals within the academic community and/or the
academic community as a whole. These were as follows:
1. Improved identification and description of engineering as a pro-
fession and preparation for success with engineering curricula for pri-
mary and secondary school students.
2. Establishment of pre-engineering program structure and stan-
dards for junior, community, and other colleges.
3. Meeting the financial needs of undergraduate and graduate engi-
neering students, which are intensified by the rigor and duration of
. . .
engmeerlng c egree programs.
4. Availability of high-quality, effective, up-to-date curricula for
undergraduate and graduate students.
5. Improved financial compensation packages for engineering
faculty.
OCR for page 5
EXE C UTIVE S UMMAR Y
6. Provision of adequate instructional support resources for engi-
neering faculty, including physical facilities, support staffs, and equip-
ment.
7. Support to maintain continued technical competence, profes-
sional recognition, opportunities for advancement, and assurance of
stability.
8. Administrative and operational support for engineering educa-
tional institutions.
9. Long-range planning for engineering education institutions.
Government Sector. The Government Sector Task Force com-
prised federal, state, and local government engineers who have been
addressing similar issues on a continuing basis. The group identified a
number of primary needs and the support mechanisms to fulfill such
needs both for the individual engineer and for the entire engineering
profession within!the government sector. In establishing these primary
needs, the various levels of government federal, state, and local-
were recognized, and those needs pertinent and common to all levels
were given priority. A list of those needs follows:
1. Attainment of requisite management skills to enable discharging
the supervisory and administrative responsibilities inherent in public
~ . . .
aamlnlstratlon.
2. Attainment of communication skills to enable effective inter-
change with the public.
3. Maintenance and enhancement of technical engineering skills in
the face of a lack of incentives and indifference loy nontechnical man-
agement.
4. Enhancement of professional development to permit generating
and maintaining an atmosphere of trust and confidence with the
public.
5. Recognition of the contribution of government engineers in pro-
tecting the health and welfare of the citizenry through public works.
6. Opportunities to perform sufficient in-house technical engineer-
ing tasks to permit maintenance of technical capability, while continu-
ing to utilize an appropriate level of engineering resources from the
private sector.
7. Improved working climate, including job stability, opportunities
for advancement, salaries, and personnel operating regulations.
8. Development of necessary skills in establishing and administer-
ing policy to serve the public interest more effectively in a regulatory
role.
OCR for page 6
6
S UPPOR T ORGANIZATIONS
9. Additional interface between engineers in the private sector and
those in government to facilitate better understanding.
Industry Sector. Because of the diversity and magnitude of the
industry segment of the engineering community, this task force uti-
lized questionnaires as a means of obtaining a consensus regarding the
needs of the engineer in industry. Five specific industry groups were
included in the survey: aerospace, aluminum {metal processing,
chemical/petroleum, electric power generation, and electronics/com
puting.
An attempt also was made to include the automotive and steel indus-
tries, but their particular circumstances during the time frame in
which the survey was conducted precluded their participation. In addi-
tion, representatives of the construction industry were provided with
the results of the survey and subsequently expressed concurrence with
the conclusions.
A lassie study questionnaire was developed by the task force and
distributed through key individuals to the various industry groups.
These individuals, in turn, probed the viewpoints of both management
and practicing engineers with regard to needs and available support
organizations. Seventy-five companies responded to the questionnaire.
The results were analyzed to determine which needs were perceived as
most important, as well as to identify the key support organizations.
Several of the needs expressed in the questionnaires were also identi-
fied lay other sectors, including technical training, increased emphasis
on professional standards, and professional development. The addi-
tional needs stressed by the industry sector are as follows:
1. Opportunities and techniques for open communication and data
exchange between companies to encourage advancement of technol-
ogy while maintaining competitive and proprietary positions.
2. Research and development capital for high-risk but potentially
high-l~enefit engineering projects.
3. Opportunities to obtain positive visibility and appreciation from
other professionals and the public for engineering achievement.
4. Recruitment opportunities to identify and acquire qualified per-
sonnel to fill engineering positions.
Private Sector. The Private Sector Task Force comprised both con-
sulting engineers and key staff representatives of two professional orga-
nizations. Together they reached a consensus regarding the primary
needs of engineers in private practice, resulting both from concerns
common to all sectors and from issues unique to this group.
OCR for page 7
EXE C UTIVE S UMMAR Y
This sector is somewhat unusual in that the engineering component
of each firm is the complete organizational entity; it is not a segment of
a larger organization, as in the case of the government, industrial, and
academic sectors. The constraints on engineers in this sector are gener-
ally external, and resolving those constraints involves the organization
as a whole.
In addition, most private practice engineering firms are small busi-
nesses; 80 to 85 percent have fewer than 26 employees. In such firms,
the principals/owners are both the technical experts and the business
managers. The following list of specific needs reflects these special
characteristics of the private sector:
1. Development of management skills essential to maintaining a
profitable operation.
2. Education and training of consulting engineering firms in tech-
niques and strategies that will permit them to successfully compete
both with their peers and with the growing number of private compa-
nies and public agencies currently offering to provide services that were
once the exclusive province of the consulting profession.
3. Development of adequate risk management tools to enable engi-
neers in private practice to minimize exposure to risk, to avoid claims
for damages, and to defend themselves in the event of litigation.
4. Guidance and assistance in achieving versatility and profitability
while maintaining integrity and objectivity in the face of significant
change related to nontraditional interpretation of the roles of the pri
. .
vate practice engineer.
Support Organizations for the Engineering Profession
Common Sector Support Organizations
Since there is a strong thread of commonality of needs in the various
sectors, the accompanying commonality of support organizations is
not surprising. Furthermore, these same support organizations play a
major role in addressing the needs specific to each particular sector.
One of the most interesting and perhaps most important findings
of this study is the degree to which the engineering community is
dependent upon various components of society at large for responses
to its needs.
Government, both legislative and administrative at all levels; broad-
spectrum educational institutions; financial and legal entities; the
media, written and electronic all of these entities play a significant
role in the support {or lack of support) of the engineering community.
Through all sectors, the dependence on support from organizations in
OCR for page 8
SUPPORT ORGANIZATIONS
the society at large is apparent. The broad development of concepts and
approaches lay which this support can lie generated or increased is
beyond the scope of this study. However, the general lack of public
understanding and appreciation of engineers and engineering is dis-
cussed in the chapter on society at large. Furthermore, the report of that
task force concludes that there is a major information gap with regard to
engineering and technology; the media often have trouble producing
accurate information related to scientific or technological data. The
single biggest problem in overcoming this information gap is perceived
to lie the media's lack of easily accessible sources responsible experts
able and willing to answer questions, articulately and factually, on the
fast-loreaking developments in our increasingly technological society.
The panel took special note of the role played lay voluntary engineer-
ing associations and societies in support of both the individual engineer
and the engineering profession. There are over 50 individual societies
and associations at the national/international level representing the
interests of and providing support to engineers and engineering. Typi-
cal of the support provided are development and dissemination of tech-
nical information; continuing education seminars, symposia, and
home study; salary surveys and employment guidelines; general news
and information about the profession, a specific technology, or area of
practice; college scholarships in engineering; precollege guidance; rep-
resentation of engineering interests in public policy before legislatures
and government agencies; public information about engineers and
engineering achievements; honors and awards for engineers and engi-
neering; employment referral services; setting of technical standards
for engineering practice; assistance on matters relating to engineering
practice; personal and lousiness services {insurance, car rental, etc.J;
developing and enforcing standards for engineering education; and
many more, depending on the interests of members.
The engineering societies and associations fall into four major group-
ings. First, there are those focused primarily on an established or
emerging engineering discipline. The American Society of Civil Engi-
neers, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Institute of Electri-
cal and Electronics Engineers, and the American Institute of Chemical
Engineers are commonly referred to as the "founder societies"; they are
the foremost examples of this first group. Such societies traditionally
have been most concerned about promoting the exchange of technical
information in the discipline concerned. Concurrently, they have
engaged in technical and professional activities of interest to their
members, including establishing technical standards, setting stan-
dards of professional conduct, promoting the public image of engineers
OCR for page 9
EXEC UTIVE S UMMAR Y
9
and engineering, ensuring the quality of engineering education pertain-
ing to their discipline, and many other matters, depending on the inter-
est of their members at any given point.
The second group of engineering societies and associations are those
focused on practice in a broad occupational field. Examples in this
category are the Society of Automotive Engineers, American Institute
of Aeronautics and Astronautics, American Society for Agricultural
Engineering, American Society of Naval Engineers, American Institute
of Plant Engineers, American Railway Engineering Association, and
American Society for Engineering Education, among others. This
group develops and promulgates technical and nontechnical informa-
tion about engineering practice within the occupational area con-
cerned, but also engages in other technical and professional activities
based on the interests of its members.
The third and fastest-growing group includes those organizations
focused on a specific technology or group of technologies or upon one of
the specific materials or forces of nature referred to in classical defini-
tions of engineering. Examples of this group are the American Society
of Metals; American Society for Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Condi-
tioning Engineers; Society for Plastics Engineers; American Nuclear
Society; American Welding Society; American Society of Safety Engi-
neers; Society of Manufacturing Engineers; Association of Energy Engi-
neers; and many others. They engage in activities to promote the
development and sharing of the body of engineering and scientific
knowledge necessary to their specific technologies and, as do the oth-
ers, pursue other technical and nontechnical goals in accordance with
the interests of their members.
The final group is composed of those associations and societies
formed either by individual engineers or by groups of societies to
accomplish a specific purpose. The National Society of Professional
Engineers was formed to promote the professional and nontechnical
interests of engineers and the profession with emphases on professional
standards {registration and ethics), the image of engineering, the qual-
ity of engineering, and involvement in public policy. The Accreditation
Board for Engineering and Technology {ABET) was formed to accredit
engineering education programs and to serve as the quality control
mechanism for engineering education. The National Council of Engi-
neering Examiners [NCEE) was formed to coordinate the state licens-
~ng process.
From time to time, attempts have been made to form an umbrella
organization to represent the entire profession, much as the American
Medical Association is seen by some as representing the entire medical
OCR for page 10
10
S UPPOR T ORGANIZATIONS
profession. However, given the diversity of interests and purposes of
the individual engineering societies and associations noted alcove,
umbrella or unity engineering organizations have achieved mixed
results. The major difficulty appears to be in deciding on which issues
and lay which methods the umbrella should represent the profession.
The recent restructuring of the American Association of Engineering
Societies {AAES) appears to be merely an extension of past experiences.
Both on purely technical issues and on nontechnical public policy
issues, there are almost always a variety of possible options that respec-
tive elements of the profession may consider acceptable and even pref-
eral~le. It is difficult to distill all options to produce a single solution for
which an umbrella group can represent the entire profession. The
diversity of views expressed lay individual engineering societies is most
often complementary or equally acceptable. Seldom is there outright
contradiction. Furthermore, it is doubtful whether distillation of
options to produce a single solution is even possible, given the nature of
engineering. And, if it were possible, it is uncertain whether it is desir-
al)le. The panel has therefore concluded that an umbrella engineering
society is not likely to be a major support mechanism in the near future.
It is estimated that approximately 50 national/international engi-
neering societies and associations represent approximately 1 million of
the 1.4 million practicing engineers in the United States See the report
of the Panel on Infrastructure Diagramming and ModelingJ. That esti-
mate, however, results from an aggregation of the individual meml~er-
ships of the societies and does not take into account overlapping
memberships. For example, it is not uncommon for an engineer to hold
memberships in as many as five separate engineering societies or asso-
ciations, depending on his or her individual interests or needs. No
known purging of overlapping memberships among the engineering
societies has been accomplished; however, a reasonable estimate of the
actual number of engineers represented lay professional/technical engi-
neering societies is 400,000 to 600,000. If this estimate is accurate, it
means that only about one-third of the practicing engineers in the
United States have direct access to the support offered lay those soci
et~es.
Because the activities of professional/technical engineering soci-
eties reflect the interests of their members, it is not surprising that the
panel discovered no overriding discontent as to their support for indi-
vidual engineers or for the profession.
The significant conclusion of the panel is that professional/technical
engineering societies, as voluntary associations of their members, have
reflected and will continue to reflect the interests of those members. As
OCR for page 11
EXE C UTIVE S UMMAR Y
11
such, they are dynamic organizations whose activities vary as their
member interests vary. Their form, composition, and activities are
appropriately determined from within and are not readily subject to
prescription by outside groups, unless that prescription reflects on
active or latent interest of the members.
Specific Sector Support Organizations
Review of the sector-specific support organizations identified veri-
fies the strong role played by the professional and technical societies.
Their functions are not only related to those technical needs unique
within the sector but to the relationship of the sector to the society at
large. An additional commonality is evident in those nonengineering
support organizations identified by each sector task force.
Academic Sector. A number of support organizations have been
identified that attempt to respond to the needs of the academic sector:
Organizations
Professional/technical societies
Legislative bodies/lay boards
Government agencies
Private foundations
Media
Model curricula
. . .
Industrial Interaction
Grants and scholarships for
. .
tultlon
Accreditation standards
Grants and subsidies for
programs
Publications
Engineering institutions
University/ college
. . .
ac .mlulstratlons
Industry
ABET
Mechanisms
Program standards
Co-op internship programs
Program funding
Sponsored research
Professional/ technical
meetings
TV and radio
Here, as in the case of the government sector, many of the needs of
engineers in academia must be met by organizations external to the
engineering community. Of particular importance is the support pro-
vided through the allocation of adequate resources for sound engineer-
ing programs. Also important is the correct interpretation of
engineering and the engineering curriculum to potential students-and
their advisors and counselors.
OCR for page 12
12
S UPPOR T ORGANIZATIONS
Government Sector.
The support organizations and mechanisms
that exist for meeting the various special needs of the engineer in gov-
ernment include the following:
Organizations
Employing organizations
Educational institutions
Trade associations
Academic curricula
Continuing education courses
Professional meetings
Improved compensation
packages
Interactions with nonengineers
Work standards
Professional/technical societies
Media
Legislative bodies
Mechanisms
Conferences and seminars
Hands-on training
Public acknowledgment and
support
Streamlined regulations
Codes of ethics
The number of support organizations outside the engineering com-
munity is significant. The government engineer is particularly depen-
dent upon positive attitudes in society at large for a good working
climate and for recognition of work well done.
Industry Sector.
The industrial sector identified the following key
support organizations and mechanisms:
Organizations
Employing organizations
Government agencies
Workshops/seminars
Technical publications
Grants
Achievement awards
Professional/technical societies
Investment groups
Mechanisms
Guidance programs
Tax incentives
Loans
Press releases/documentaries
An important function of external support organizations required by
the industrial sector is the acknowledgment of the contributions of
industry to the quality of life and growth of the economy and the
corresponding recognition of what makes these contributions possible.
Private Practice Sector. The key support organizations and mecha-
nisms identified by the private sector include the following:
OCR for page 13
EXE C UTIVE S UMMAR Y
Professional/technical societies
Educational institutions
Investment bankers
Government agencies
Continuing education
Seminars/short courses
Academic curricula
13
Organizations
Mechanisms
Trade associations
. . . . .
Lea :~ sty Insurance carriers
Legislative bodies
Technical literature
Model contract documents
, .
Procurement procedures
The private sector is affected significantly by the public at large,
which in effect is its clientele. Consequently, support organizations
play an important role in advising the public of the role of consulting
engineers and in documenting the positive contribution of this sector
of the engineering community.
Conclusions
The detailed work of the Panel on Support Organizations for the
Engineering Community has been documented in a series of reports
that present the findings of each sector task force Chapters 1 through
5~. For en understanding of the needs and support organizations for each
sector, the reader is directed to these chapters. However, a number of
significant general conclusions can be drawn from these reports:
1. A wide variety of needs exist for each sector of the engineering
community, which must be met by specific types of support organiza-
t~ons.
2. There is a significant degree of commonality in the statement of
needs of each sector, substantiating the concept of engineering as a
unified profession despite the wide diversity of engineering skills and
knowledge.
3. Similarly, there are many support organizations that serve the
broad needs of the engineering community.
4. Each sector of the engineering community must deal with a
unique set of constraints and influences; as such, each possesses special
needs that must be met through its own network of support organiza-
tions. Many support organizations, however, are responsive to needs in
several sectors.
5. The technical/professional organizations appear to be quite effec-
tive in meeting the needs of the engineering community. To a fair
OCR for page 14
14
S UPPOR T ORGANIZATIONS
extent, however, the effectiveness of their support is based upon the
participation of the organization's membership or on the ability of the
organization to communicate to nonmembers the availability of the
support mechanisms.
6. The nonengineering support organizations are felt to be much less
effective in meeting the needs of the engineering community, largely
due to a lack of comprehension of what constitutes engineering, an
adverse perception of how engineering has served or is serving the
public, or a failure to understand the needs that exist in the engineering
community.
7. Magnifying the problem of inadequate nontechnical support is
the fact that the engineering profession is highly influenced by the
public sector in the manner and extent to which it contributes to soci-
ety. Legislative, financial, regulatory, and administrative constraints of
the society at large are present for every sector, and the degree to which
they affect the optimum use of engineering skills and knowledge is of
major concern to the profession.
8. Engineers and engineering have not received media coverage
reflecting the quantity and quality of their contributions to society,
principally because of the current lack of access by journalists to credi-
lale sources of information.
9. Similarly, the educational institutions are playing an active and
effective role in meeting the needs of the engineering community.
However, individual organizations often have geographical or other
constraints on the breadth of the population they can serve. Further-
more, in continuing education a dichotomy exists between academic
emphasis on degree programs and the practicing engineer's need for
training lay means of short courses, seminars, etc., which are generally
nondegree programs.
10. Trade associations are particularly supportive in the industrial
sector and most frequently affect the activities of the profession as
opposed to the individual engineer.
Recommendations
1. Effective, long-range contributions to society by the individual
engineer and the engineering profession are highly dependent upon
improved support from society at large. New and innovative
approaches must be developed for this long-recognized but inade-
quately addressed need. The technical/professional societies, the
National Academy of Engineering, and other organizations in the engi
OCR for page 15
EXE C UTIVE S UMMAR Y
15
peering community should give particular emphasis to this area in
establishing their priorities and programs.
2. The engineering community should take immediate steps to
develop a national network that would provide journalists with access
to information about engineers and engineering. The National Acad-
emy of Engineering appears to be a strong candidate for the leadership
role in establishing such a network.
3. Although in most cases there does not appear to be a need to form
new types of support organizations, many of the existing organizations
and the accompanying mechanisms critically affect the ability of engi-
neers to contribute to society. These organizations should continually
reexamine their programs for adequacy in terms of the changing needs
of the engineering profession. They should also look beyond their cur-
rent constituencies, seeking ways to broaden their availability and
service to the engineering community as a whole.
4. The issue of the technology explosion as it affects the ability of the
engineering profession to optimize its contributions to society should
be considered an item of major concern. Existing organizations should
reevaluate methods for providing better access to their support for the
individual engineer; they should also provide for communication and
discussion of the implications of such an explosion to society at large.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
engineering community
