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U.S.-European Collaboration In Space Science
Committee on International Space Programs
Space Studies Board
Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and Applications
National Research Council Washington, D.C., United States of America
European Space Science Committee
European Science Foundation Strasbourg, France
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C.
1998
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NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the joint committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competencies and with regard for appropriate balance.
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. William A. Wulf is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce Alberts and Dr. William A. Wulf are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.
Support for this project was provided by Contract NASW 96013 between the National Academy of Sciences and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the view of the organizations or agencies that provided support for this project.
The cover was designed by Penny Margolskee. Back cover: Hubbell Space Telescope image courtesy of the Space Telescope Science Institute.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 97-80595
International Standard Book Number 0-309-05984-4
In the United States and outside of Europe, copies of this report are available from:
Space Studies Board
National Research Council
2101 Constitution Avenue, NW
Washington, D.C. 20418
National Academy Press
2101 Constitution Ave., NW Box 285 Washington, D.C. 20055 800-624-6242 202-334-3313 (in the Washington metropolitan area) http://www.nap.edu
Copyright 1998 is administered by the National Academy of Sciences on behalf of the copublishers, the National Academy Press in the United States and the European Science Foundation in Europe.
All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
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NOTICE: The European Space Science Committee (ESSC) is an associated committee of the European Science Foundation (ESF). It aims to promote space science related activities, to facilitate the definition and the organization of space research programs in Europe, and to encourage the coordination of space research in concert with the European Space Agency, the European Commission and European Union, European scientific associations, national space agencies, and scientific organizations of other countries concerned with space-related research.
The European Science Foundation is an association of 62 major national funding agencies devoted to basic scientific research in 21 countries. It acts as a catalyst for the development of science by bringing together leading scientists and funding agencies to debate, plan, and implement pan-European scientific and science policy initiatives.
The ESSC aims to act as one of the pan-European representative bodies on issues concerning space research and related activities. It is a place for reflections and proposals made independently from agencies and governments. ESSC members are chosen pro nomine among experts active in space-related research.
Financial support for the work of the ESSC, ESSC panels, and ESSC work groups was provided in 1997 by the Fonds zur Förderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung in Österreich (Austria) the National Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek/Fonds National de la Recherche Scientifique (Belgium), the Schweizerischer National fonds zur Förderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung (Switzerland), the Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Gemeinschaft Deutscher Forschungszentren (Germany), the Forskningsradene (Denmark), the European Space Agency, the Centre National d'Études Spatiales (France), the Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (the Netherlands), the Naturvetenskapliga forskningsrådet (Sweden), and the Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council (United Kingdom).
The ESSC comprises three permanent discipline-oriented panels: the European Space Physical Science Panel (ESPSP), the European Earth Observation Panel (EEOP), and the European Microgravity Panel (EMP).
Information on the committee's activities and publications can be found on the ESSC Web site at <http://www.esf.org/essc>.
In Europe, copies of this report are available from:
European Space Science Committee
Dr. J.-C. Worms
c/o ENSPS—Parc d'Innovation
Boulevard Sébastien Brandt
F-67400 ILLKIRCH, France
essc@ensps.u-strasbg.fr
Andrew J.A. Smith
Communications Unit
European Science Foundation
1 quai Lezay-Marnésia
67080 Strasbourg Cedex, France
communications@esf.org
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MEMBERS OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE
European Members
FRANÇOIS BECKER,
International Space University (formerly with École Nationale Supérieure de Physique, Université L. Pasteur), Strasbourg, France,
Chair
MICHEL BIGNIER,
La Réunion Spatiale, Paris, France
A. MIKE CRUISE,
University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
ALVARO GIMÉNEZ,
L.A.E.F.F., Madrid, Spain
ROBERT J. GURNEY,
University of Reading, Reading, United Kingdom
GERHARD HAERENDEL,
Max-Palanck-Institut für extraterrestrische Physik, Garching, Germany
MANFRED H. KELLER,
Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Luft und Raumfahrt, Köln, Germany
JEAN-CLAUDE LEGROS,
Microgravity Research Center—Free University of Brussels, Brussels, Belgium
DAG LINNARSSON,
Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
HERBERT W. SCHNOPPER,
Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, Cambridge, Massachusetts (from May 1, 1997; formerly with Danish Space Research Institute, Copenhagen, Denmark)
FRED W. TAYLOR,
Clarendon Laboratory, Oxford, United Kingdom
Experts and Consultants
HANS BALSIGER,
University of Bern, Switzerland
MARCELLO CORADINI,
European Space Agency
GUY DUCHOSSOIS,
European Space Agency
JOHANNES GEISS,
International Space Science Institute, Bern, Switzerland
VITTORIO MANNO,
International Space Science Institute, Bern, Switzerland
SERGIO VOLONTÉ,
European Space Agency
Staff
JEAN-CLAUDE WORMS, ESSC Executive Secretary
U.S. Members
(Committee on International Space Programs)
BERRIEN MOORE III,
University of New Hampshire,
Chair
ROBERT J. BAYUZICK,
Vanderbilt University
ROBERT E. CLELAND,
University of Washington
BILL GREEN, former member,
U.S. House of Representatives
JONATHAN E. GRINDLAY,
Harvard University
JOAN JOHNSON-FREESE,
Air War College, Maxwell Air Force Base
VICTOR V. KLEMAS,
University of Delaware
DONALD G. MITCHELL,
Johns Hopkins University
JAMES R. MORRISON,
BDM, Inc. (retired)
S. ICHTIAQUE RASOOL,
University of New Hampshire; International Geosphere-Biosphere Program, Paris
JOHN A. SIMPSON,
University of Chicago
DARRELL F. STROBEL,
Johns Hopkins University
LOUIS J. LANZEROTTI,
Lucent Technologies
(ex officio)
Staff
PAMELA L. WHITNEY, Study Director
CARMELA J. CHAMBERLAIN, Senior Program Assistant
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EUROPEAN SPACE SCIENCE COMMITTEE
FRANÇOIS BECKER,
International Space University (formerly with École Nationale Supérieure de Physique, Université L. Pasteur), Strasbourg, France,
Chair (through November 1997)
JOHN LEONARD CULHANE,
Mullard Space Science Laboratory, London, United Kingdom,
Chair (December 1997 to present)
European Earth Observation Panel (EEOP)
ROBERT J. GURNEY,
University of Reading, Reading, United Kingdom,
Chair, EEOP
WERNER ALPERS,
Institut für Meereskunde, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
FRANÇOIS BECKER,
International Space University (formerly with École Nationale Supérieure de Physique, Université L. Pasteur), Strasbourg, France
ANNY CAZENAVE,
Laboratoire en Géophysique et Océanographie Spatiale (LEGOS), Groupe de Recherche de Géodésie Spatiale, Centre National d'Études Spatiales, Toulouse, France*
MARIE-LISE CHANIN,
Stratospheric Processes and Their Role in Climate (SPARC) Office, Verrières, France*
GÉRARD MÉGIE,
Institut Pierre-Simon Laplace, Paris, France (through December 1997)
HANS SÜNKEL,
Technische Universität Graz, Graz, Austria
European Space Physical Science Panel (ESPSP)
JOHAN A.M. BLEEKER,
Space Research Laboratory, Space Research Organization Netherlands, Utrecht, The Netherlands,
Chair,
ESPSP*
MAURIZIO CANDIDI,
Instituto di Fisica dello Spazio Interplanetario, Frascati, Italy (through December 1997)
A. MIKE CRUISE,
Physics and Space Science, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
ALVARO GIMÉNEZ,
L.A.E.F.F., Madrid, Spain
GERHARD HAERENDEL,
Max-Planck-Institut für extraterrestrische Physik, Garching, Germany
NAZZARENO MANDOLESI,
I.TE.S.R.E., Bologna, Italy
PHILIPPE MASSON,
Université de Paris Sud, Orsay, France
FRED W. TAYLOR,
Clarendon Laboratory, Oxford, United Kingdom (through December 1997)
GILBERT VÉDRENNE,
Centre d'Études Spatiales des Rayonnements, Toulouse, France
JOHN C. ZARNECKI,
University of Kent, Canterbury, United Kingdom*
ANDRZEJ A. ZDZIARSKI,
Copernicus Astronomical Centre, Warsaw, Poland
European Microgravity Panel (EMP)
JEAN-CLAUDE LEGROS,
Microgravity Research Center—Free University of Brussels, Brussels, Belgium,
Chair, EMP
JEAN-JACQUES FAVIER,
Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique, Grenoble, France
GERDA HORNECK,
Institut für Luft und Raumfahrt, DLR, Köln, Germany*
NORBERT KIEHNE,
Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Luft und Raumfahrt, Köln, Germany (through December 1997)
DAG LINNARSSON,
Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
JEAN-CLAUDE WORMS,
ESSC Executive Secretary, ENSPS, Strasbourg, France
HANS U. KAROW, ESF Scientific Secretary,
Strasbourg, France
*
Appointed May 1998.
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SPACE STUDIES BOARD
CLAUDE R. CANIZARES,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Chair
MARK R. ABBOTT,
Oregon State University
JAMES P. BAGIAN,*
Environmental Protection Agency
DANIEL N. BAKER,
University of Colorado
LAWRENCE BOGORAD,
Harvard University
DONALD E. BROWNLEE,
University of Washington
JOHN J. DONEGAN,*
John Donegan Associates, Inc.
GERARD W. ELVERUM, JR.,
TRW Space and Technology Group
ANTHONY W. ENGLAND,
University of Michigan
MARILYN L. FOGEL,
Carnegie Institution of Washington
MARTIN E. GLICKSMAN,*
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
RONALD GREELEY,
Arizona State University
BILL GREEN, former member,
U.S. House of Representatives
ANDREW H. KNOLL,
Harvard University
JANET G. LUHMANN,*
University of California, Berkeley
ROBERTA BALSTAD MILLER,
CIESIN
BERRIEN MOORE III,
University of New Hampshire
KENNETH H. NEALSON,*
University of Wisconsin
MARY JANE OSBORN,
University of Connecticut Health Center
SIMON OSTRACH,
Case Western Reserve University
MORTON B. PANISH,
AT&T Bell Laboratories
(retired)
CARLÉ M. PIETERS,
Brown University
THOMAS A. PRINCE,
California Institute of Technology
MARCIA J. RIEKE,*
University of Arizona
PEDRO L. RUSTAN, JR.,
U.S. Air Force
(retired)
JOHN A. SIMPSON,
University of Chicago
GEORGE L. SISCOE,
Boston University
EDWARD M. STOLPER,
California Institute of Technology
RAYMOND VISKANTA,
Purdue University
ROBERT E. WILLIAMS,
Space Telescope Science Institute
JOSEPH K. ALEXANDER, Director (as of February 17, 1998)
MARC S. ALLEN, Director (through December 12, 1997)
*
Former member.
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COMMISSION ON PHYSICAL SCIENCES, MATHEMATICS, AND APPLICATIONS
ROBERT J. HERMANN,
United Technologies Corporation,
Co-chair
W. CARL LINEBERGER,
University of Colorado,
Co-chair
PETER M. BANKS,
Environmental Research Institute of Michigan
WILLIAM BROWDER,
Princeton University
LAWRENCE D. BROWN,
University of Pennsylvania
RONALD G. DOUGLAS,
Texas A&M University
JOHN E. ESTES,
University of California at Santa Barbara
MARTHA P. HAYNES,
Cornell University
L. LOUIS HEGEDUS,
Elf Atochem North America, Inc.
JOHN E. HOPCROFT,
Cornell University
CAROL M. JANTZEN,
Westinghouse Savannah River Company
PAUL G. KAMINSKI,
Technovation, Inc.
KENNETH H. KELLER,
University of Minnesota
KENNETH I. KELLERMANN,
National Radio Astronomy Observatory
MARGARET G. KIVELSON,
University of California at Los Angeles
DANIEL KLEPPNER,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
JOHN KREICK,
Sanders, a Lockheed Martin Company
MARSHA I. LESTER,
University of Pennsylvania
NICHOLAS P. SAMIOS,
Brookhaven National Laboratory
CHANG-LIN TIEN,
University of California at Berkeley
NORMAN METZGER, Executive Director
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Foreword
Photographs of Earth from space show no political boundaries, reminding us that national distinctions are manmade. But the agencies responsible for those pictures, other missions to Earth orbit, and probes to deep space are inevitably national or multinational. Each has its own set of constituencies, procedures, capabilities, and limitations.
There are great benefits from finding ways those entities and their respective research and industrial communities can act cooperatively, as has been amply demonstrated by many successful examples of international cooperation in the space sciences. Beyond the cultural enrichment that comes when people of different nations work together for a common goal, those benefits include the potentially richer scientific yield from shared expertise and broader political and financial support.
Joint activities between the National Aeronautics and Space Administration in the United States and the European Space Agency or individual European national space agencies have resulted in some of the world's most successful space science missions, and more joint efforts are being planned. But inevitably, some attempts at transatlantic cooperation are more successful than others. Sometimes difficulties arise as they would in any large, complex technical undertaking, whether national or multinational. At other times, however, the additional complications of internationalism itself can cause or exacerbate those difficulties.
We believe that improving the likelihood of successful U.S.-European cooperation is a worthy goal that can enhance the space programs and benefit the peoples of all participating nations. This benefit is clearest in the case of the International Space Station, the largest multinational undertaking of its kind. Its success depends entirely on the cooperation of the United States, Europe, and the other major partners. We think improving international cooperation can also enhance more modest space missions that study Earth, explore the solar system, or probe the cosmos.
This joint report is itself an exercise in international cooperation. The Space Studies Board of the U.S. National Research Council and the European Space Science Committee of the European Science Foundation are charged with advising their respective space enterprises. Our charters, procedures, and operating styles are not identical. Yet we have a long history of fruitful interchange and a shared vision of science as a global activity, and this understanding provided a natural context for this study.
It is our hope that this report will help make future cooperative ventures in space science more successful than ever. Some of the conclusions may be relevant for those planning international ventures in other areas as well. We
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plan to continue our joint dialogue and hope to extend our deliberations to include colleagues in other major space-faring nations. We are confident that the spirit of shared human inquiry that has characterized science throughout history will continue and grow stronger on the high frontier of space research.
Claude R. Canizares
Chair, Space Studies Board
FranÇois Becker
Chair, European Space Science Committee (through November 1997)
J. Leonard Culhane
Chair, European Space Science Committee (from December 1997)
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Acknowledgment of Reviewers
This report has been reviewed by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the National Research Council (NRC) Report Review Committee and agreed to by the European Science Foundation. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the authors, NRC, and ESF in making the published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The contents of the review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their participation in the review of this report:
J. Iwan Alexander, University of Alabama, Huntsville
James Burch, Southwest Research Institute
Jeff Dozier, University of California, Santa Barbara
Thérèse Encrenaz, Observatoire de Paris, Meudon
Robert A. Frosch, Harvard University
Roy Gibson, Montpellier, France
Jay Goldberg, University of Chicago
Gerda Horneck, Institut für Luft und Raumfahrt, DLR, Köln, Germany*
John Huchra, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics
William Kaula, University of California, Los Angeles
Kenneth I. Kellerman, Radio Astronomy Observatory
Brian McBreen, University College Dublin
Rodolfo Monti, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II
*
This reviewer, currently a member of the European Space Science Committee (ESSC), had no connection with the committee at the time of the review.
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John Naugle, North Falmouth, Massachusetts
Tobias Owen, University of Hawaii
Alain Ratier, European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT)
David J. Southwood, Imperial College of London*
Although the individuals listed above have provided many constructive comments and suggestions, responsibility for the final content of this report rests solely with the authoring joint committee, NRC, and ESF.
This report could not have been written without the contributions of many colleagues who provided the joint committee with essential unpublished information. The members of the joint committee are very grateful to them.
*
This reviewer, currently working at the European Space Agency, was not affiliated with the agency at the time of the review.
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Contents
Executive Summary
1
1
Introduction
10
The Joint Committee's Task
10
Rationale for International Cooperation
10
Scope and Study Criteria
11
2
Historical Context of U.S.-European Cooperation
14
Chronology
14
1958-1973
14
1974-1982
19
1983-1992
21
The Post—Cold War Years
23
Cooperation in the Post—Cold War Era
28
The United States and Europe: Structure, Funding, Decision-Making
29
U.S. Government System and Structure
29
European Systems and Structures
33
Differences in U.S. and European Views Regarding Cooperation on Science Projects
39
3
Case Studies of U.S.-European Missions
42
Astrophysics
43
Hubble Space Telescope
44
Roentgen Satellite
48
Solar and Heliospheric Observatory
51
International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory
53
Lessons Learned
56
Planetary Sciences
59
Cassini Mission with the Huygens Probe
60
Generic Mars Mission
64
Lessons Learned
67
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Space Physics
69
International Solar Polar Mission
70
Active Magnetospheric Particle Tracer Explorer
73
International Sun-Earth Explorer Mission
76
Lessons Learned
77
Earth Sciences
80
The Case for Cooperation
81
Case Mission Choice and Rationale
82
Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite
83
Ocean Topography Experiment (TOPEX-POSEIDON)
84
Earth Observing System
87
Lessons Learned
91
Microgravity Research and Life Sciences
95
International Microgravity Laboratory
95
Lessons Learned
98
4
Findings and Recommendations
101
Goals and Rationale for International Cooperation
102
Planning and Identification of Cooperative Opportunities
104
Management and Implementation
105
Personnel
106
Guidelines and Procedures
107
Conclusions
109
Appendixes
113
A Cooperative U.S.-European Space Projects
115
B Letter from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration to the Enrico Fermi Institute, University of Chicago, August 11, 1972
125
C Memorandum of Understanding Between the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the European Space Agency for the International Solar Polar Mission, March 29, 1979
129
D Letter from the Office of Management and Budget to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, June 22, 1981
139
E NASA Presentation to NRC Committee for Its Study on ''The International Solar Polar Mission (A Review and Assessment of Options)," June 1981
141
F Correspondence Between the European Space Agency and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, October 12, 1994, to April 17, 1996
143
G Letter from the European Space Agency to the Vice President of the United States, June 13, 1994
151
H Acronyms and Abbreviations
155
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