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The Immigration Debate: Studies on the Economic, Demographic, and Fiscal Effects of Immigration
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Index
A
Age-mediated effects
cost-benefit analysis of fiscal impacts, 22-25
duration of immigrant residency, 303
employment rates across female cohorts, 264, 266
fertility patterns across female cohorts, 249-253
fiscal impacts of immigration, 3, 39-44
household consumption/revenues (California), 156-157, 158-159, 161
household consumption/revenues (New Jersey), 77-80, 81, 90-91
labor market outcomes across female cohorts, 249-253
no fiscal impact of population growth, 27-28
risk of criminal behavior, 370, 375, 381
use of government services, 52
See also Generational modeling
Ages of immigrants, 42, 45
California household characteristics, 133-136
distribution of arriving cohorts, 40-41
historical patterns, 294-295, 299-301
New Jersey household data, 73-75
Aggregate production function, 317-319
Agricultural workers, 310-311
Aid to Families with Dependent Children California government expenditures , 141, 164
New Jersey government expenditures, 101-102, 103
Alcohol use/abuse, 369
Arizona, 413
Phoenix, 397-399
Asian immigrants, 5
in California, 121, 133, 137-140, 141, 151, 158
distribution patterns, 389-392
employment rates across cohorts, 271, 275
New Jersey household fiscal impacts, 81, 82, 85-86
New Jersey sociodemographic data, 73, 75, 77
trends among women, 242
Assimilation
criminal behavior and, 370, 383-384
female immigrants, 9
historical patterns, 292
labor market outcomes across female cohorts, 249-253, 260-261, 265, 270-271, 275-276, 286
labor market outcomes across male cohorts, 270-271
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B
Beneficiary societies, 342-343
Bias and discrimination
immigrant risk of imprisonment, 375-376
internal migration and, 404, 424
Bilingual education, 97, 121, 191
Border state crime rates, 378-380C
California, 3-4, 5-6
distribution of government benefits, 150-153, 175-178
fiscal impacts of immigration, 121-122, 153-168
fiscal impacts research, methodology and data sources, 122-128, 168 -178
government expenditures, 131
government revenues, 128-130, 141-150, 168-175
household characteristics, 131-141, 167-168
immigrant/native tax revenues, 121, 141-150
immigrant population, 120-121
internal migration patterns, 392-393, 394-397, 404, 407, 413, 416, 417, 419-423
Los Angeles, 404, 424-425
patterns of immigration, 120
politics of immigration, 121
San Francisco, 404
significance of, in immigration analysis, 120
Canadian immigrants. See European/Canadian immigrants
Capital-labor ratio, 320-322, 326
Children of immigrants fiscal impacts modeling, 184-185
See also Generational modeling
Colombia, 374-375, 376-377
Colorado, 393
Denver, 399
Commission on Immigration Reform, 1
Consumption behavior demand side modeling, 218
fiscal impacts of immigration, 32-33, 61
of immigrants, 54-55
Corporate sector, 5
Cost-benefit analysis
identifying beneficiaries, 72
intergovernmental modeling, 25-27
multiperiod-analysis, 22-25
theoretical model, 20-22
Countries of origin
criminality research, 370-371
destination patterns and, 390, 412, 425
distribution in prisons, 373-375
employment rates across female cohorts, 261-263
employment rates across female immigrant cohorts, 271
trends, 239
trends among women, 241-242
See also Ethnicity;
specific country or region
Criminal activity, 2, 11
acculturation effects, 370, 383-384
age-mediated risk, 370, 375, 381
arrest rates correlated with immigration rates, 372
in border states, 378-380
challenges to research, 11, 368, 375, 382
costs of incarceration, 177-178
data sources, 368, 372-373, 380-381
detention before trial, 376
drug use among immigrants and, 376-378
early research, 369-371
immigrant group heterogeneity and, 374
immigrant victimization, 382
implications of fertility patterns, 382, 383, 384-385
New York homicide rate, 369-370, 372
number of incarcerated immigrants, 367
organized crime, 371
projections, 382, 383-385
public concern over time, 367-368, 371-372, 378
risk for, 381-382
risk of imprisonment, 375-376
turn of the century immigration law, 368-369
Cross-sectional analysis
concurrent descendants formulation, 184-185
defining concurrent descendants, 186-187, 200
estimating expenditures and revenues, 187-192, 201-204
fiscal impacts (1994-1995), 192-201
fiscal impacts of concurrent descendants, 192-199
immigrant household fiscal impacts, 197-199
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immigrant household formulation, 184
immigrant-only fiscal impacts, 197-199
immigrant-only formulation, 184
labor market outcomes for female cohorts, 258-260
limitations, 185
rationale, 7, 184, 199-200
research base, 185-186
vs. longitudinal study, 199, 200-201
Cuba, 375
Cultural factors in education, 55-56D
Demand side modeling, 218
Deportation, 367
Disabled persons, 106-107
Dominican Republic, 375, 376-377
Drug trade and use, 376-378, 381
Duration of residency, 290, 302-305E
Economic growth
aggregate production function, 317-319
capital-labor ratio, 320-322, 326
defining, 314-315
economies of scale, 328-330
effects on immigration, 290, 305-307
historical patterns, 10
historical supply of human capital, 330-331
immigration effects, 291, 306, 316, 333-334
immigration-related mechanisms of, 10, 291
innovation and invention, 326-328
internal migration patterns, 394, 397, 399
labor force participation of immigrants, 319-320
as labor productivity, 315
measuring immigrant effects, 316-319
physical capital formation, 322-325
upward mobility of immigrants, 350
Economies of scale, 328-330
Education spending
calculating household consumption, 96-100
California, 131, 152, 175-177
as income redistribution, 347-349
1994-1995, 191
Educational attainments, 11
among female immigrant cohorts, 243, 254
California household characteristics, 137-140
cultural factors, 55-56
employment rates across female cohorts, 263, 266, 268-269
fiscal impacts of population growth, 37-39, 46-48, 61
future fiscal inflows from, 61
immigrant destination patterns and, 390
internal migration patterns, 401-404, 406
international factor price convergence, 222
multi-period analysis of fiscal effects, 26
parental factors, 56
trends, 47
wage levels across female immigrant cohorts, 275-276, 277
Educational quality, 38-39
El Salvador, 374-375
Employment-based preferences, 51-52
Employment counseling/training, 104-106
Ethnicity, 5
educational system participation, 347-348
employment rates across female cohorts, 261-263, 271
sociodemographic variation among New Jersey immigrants, 73-77
socioeconomic disparities in high-immigration areas, 425
wage levels across female cohorts, 275-276, 277, 278, 280
See also Countries of origin
Eugenics movement, 369
European/Canadian immigrants, 5
in California, 133, 137-140, 150, 157-158
macroeconomic models, 306, 307
New Jersey household fiscal impacts, 77, 80, 81, 86
New Jersey sociodemographic data, 73, 75, 77
trends among women, 242F
Factor price equalization, 8, 210
Family reunification, 45, 389
Family structure and functioning
across female immigrant cohorts, 246, 255-258
California household characteristics, 136, 167
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education outcomes, 55-56
fertility patterns, 349-350, 383, 384-385
fiscal impacts, 45-46
New Jersey household fiscal impacts, 81-82
Female immigrants, 1-2
assimilation effects in labor market outcomes, 249-253, 260-261, 265, 275, 286
census data (1980 and 1990), 247-241
changes across cohorts, 247-249
country of origin trends, 241-242
economic assimilation, 9, 264
educational attainments, 347
educational attainments across cohorts, 243, 254
employment and wage patterns, 9-10
employment rate across cohorts, 243, 249-251, 260-275, 281-286
female-headed households, 52, 53, 82-83, 86
fertility outcomes across cohorts, 246, 248, 255-258
historical patterns, 10, 290, 300-301
human capital variables, 243
labor market outcomes, 239-240
labor market outcomes across cohorts, 243-247, 248, 249-253, 281-287
language skills across cohorts, 243, 254-255
marital status changes across cohorts, 246, 248, 255
research base, 239
wage levels across cohorts, 243-246, 249, 252-253, 275-280
Fiscal impacts of immigration
age-mediated differences, 40-44
California case study, 3-4, 5-6, 121-178
consumption and savings patterns, 32-33
cost-benefit analysis, 20-27
cross-sectional analysis, 7, 184-186, 192-201
effects of immigrant characteristics, 39-40
ethnic variation, 5
general equilibrium modeling, 68-69
generational modeling, 6-7, 15
geographic concentration, 3-4, 11-12, 56-57
historical analysis, 10-11
household-level analysis, 4, 5-6, 66, 69, 87-88
immigrant vs. native households (California), 152-168
immigrant vs. native households (New Jersey), 87, 168
income distribution changes, 334-349
increasing returns to scale, effects of, 30, 60-61, 216-217
legal status of immigrants, 71-72
on local government, 25-27, 68
modeling education effects, 37-39
modeling international trade, 209-219
neutrality model, 27-29, 60
New Jersey case study, 3-5, 6, 69-116
1994-1995, 186, 192-199
nonuniform increases in age groups, 34-37
research base, 2-3, 57-62, 66-69
research design, 3, 6-7, 13-14, 183-186
skill level of immigrants, 33-34, 46-48
theoretical framework for assessing, 2, 3, 14-19, 39-40
top-down vs. bottom-up modeling, 71, 122-123
wage patterns, 48-51
Florida, 191, 399
internal migration patterns, 393, 413
Miami, 397, 404G
General equilibrium modeling, 68-69
international trade, 208-219
Generational modeling, 6-7
concurrent descendants formulation, 184-185, 186, 192-197, 200-201
educational effects on fiscal impacts, 37-39
fiscal impacts (1994-1995), 192-201
fiscal impacts of immigrant children, 184-185
limitations of cross-sectional approaches, 184-185
local government fiscal modeling, 26
long-run general equilibrium models, 208.
See also specific model
longitudinal, 199, 200-201
multi-period cost-benefit analysis of fiscal impacts, 22-25
nonuniform population growth, fiscal effects of 34-37
theoretical framework, 15
Geographic distribution, 11-12
concentration of immigrants, 389-392, 423-424
federal compensation to high immigration states, 197
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fiscal impacts, 3-6, 57, 194-197
historical wage differentials, 337-339
internal migration, 12
metropolitan patterns, 394-399
modeling out-migration from high-immigration areas, 413, 416-417, 419-423
patterns, 56-57, 399-401
socioeconomic disparities in high-immigration areas, 425
state trends, 392-394
wage and labor differences, 11-12
See also Internal migration;
specific U.S. state
Georgia, 393, 413
Atlanta, 399
Government services, consumption of
California households, 126-127, 140-141, 150-153, 175-178
California immigrants, 121
cost-benefit analysis, 20-22
family composition factors, 45-46
fiscal impacts of immigration, 3, 60-62
historical patterns, 10-11, 291, 340-343
household level, 5-6
immigrant patterns, 43, 67-68
immigrant skill levels and, 52-54
native-born households, 5-6, 52-54
New Jersey households, 77-86, 93-108
research methodology, 13-14
theoretical model, 15-16
trends in eligibility, 13
Government spending
allocation to households, 70, 89-93
California, 121, 131, 175-178
characteristics of immigrant groups as factor in, 55, 167-168
cost-benefit analysis, 20-22, 25-27
cross-sectional analysis, 201-204
education, 55-56, 77, 80, 347-349
education effects on fiscal impact, 37-39
federal compensation to high immigration states, 197
fiscal impacts of immigration (1994-1995), 192-201
future fiscal inflows from, 61-62
historical income redistribution through social spending, 339-349
immigrant age-mediated effects, 43-46
intergovernmental externalities, 27
intergovernmental transfers, 26-27
investments, 18
multi-period analysis, 22-25
1994-1995, 187-192
old-age support, 345-347
in penal system, 367
public debt management, 19, 30, 187, 188-189
on public goods and services, 16-18, 30-32, 60, 70, 187, 188
theoretical model, 16-19
on transfers, 18-19, 187, 189-191
variation in marginal cost of public services, 30-32
See also Government services, consumption of;
Tax payments
Guatemala, 374-375H
Heckscher-Olin model of international trade, 211-215
High-skilled labor
in fiscal impacts of population growth, 33-34
historical patterns, 312-313
See also Skill levels of immigrants
High education
allocation of costs/benefits (California), 177
allocation of costs/benefits (New Jersey), 97-100
Hispanic immigrants
criminal activity, 378-379
destination patterns, 390-392
language skills, 48
in prisons, 373-375, 376-378
See also Latin American immigrants
Historical developments, 10-11
African American internal migration, 337
age of immigrants, 42
assimilation of immigrants, 292
capital-labor ratio, 320-322, 326
characteristics of immigrants, 290-291
concerns about criminality and immigration, 367-368, 371-372
distribution of social spending, 339-349
duration of immigrant stay, 302-305
economic growth effects of immigration, 291
economic mobility of immigrants, 350
geographic distribution of immigrants, 56
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human capital mix of immigrants, 47
immigrant demography, 299-301
immigrant-native wage differentials, 334-339
immigrant savings behavior, 323-325 291-292, 334
income distribution effects of immigration, interpretation of, 289-290
labor force participation of immigrants, 319-320
magnitude of immigration, 290, 292-298
occupations of arriving immigrants, 310-313
physical capital formation, 322-326
relevance to policymaking, 350-352
research base, 289
skills of immigrants, 290-291, 307-310
supply of human capital, 330-331
wage patterns, 48-51, 331-334
Home ownership, 326, 348
Household-level analysis, 5-6
allocation of costs and benefits, 72
allocation of government expenditures and revenues, 70-71, 88-116
California data, 123-125, 131-141
consumption of government services, 5-6, 66-67, 150-153
cross-sectional, 184
educational costs of immigration, 122, 152
female-headed households, 52, 53, 82-83, 86
fiscal impact studies, 4, 5, 66, 69
fiscal impacts of immigration (California), 122
fiscal impacts of immigration (New Jersey), 80-83, 84-86
future research, 87-88
generational modeling, 6-7
immigrant vs. native fiscal impacts, 87, 153-168
legal status issues, 71-72
local government spending (New Jersey), 83-84
methodology, 69, 70-72
New Jersey data, 72-77
rationale, 69-70
significance of, 68
state government spending (New Jersey), 77-80
tax revenues (California), 125-126, 128-130, 141-150
tax revenues (New Jersey), 109-112, 115-116I
Illegal immigrants, 302, 373
arrest and prosecution, 375-376
fiscal impact modeling, 71-72
tax payments, 68
Illinois
Chicago, 370, 397, 404
internal migration patterns, 392-393, 413, 416
Immigration Reform and Control Act, 293, 301
Incentives to migrate
factor price equalization model, 210
general equilibrium models of international trade, 209-219
immigrant skill linkage, 308
international factor price convergence, 219-223
metropolitan migration patterns, 397
opportunities for innovation, 327
out-migration from high-immigration areas, 401-407
policy effects, 290, 305
push-pull model, 308, 401, 424
state internal migration patterns, 392-394
U.S. economic conditions, 290, 305-307
Income
California households, 140, 159, 167
general effects of immigration, 192
immigration-related redistribution, 334-337
New Jersey immigrant households, 75-77
redistribution through social spending, 339-349
theoretical model, 15-16
See also Wages
Innovation, 326-328
Intergovernmental transfers, 26-27
Internal migration, 2
African Americans, 292, 337
concentration of immigrants, 389-392
demographic variables, 419-420
economic conditions and, 394, 397, 399
educational attainments and, 401-404, 406
from high-immigration areas, 401-407
immigration and, 12
impact analysis, 407-413, 416-417, 419-423
implications, 388, 424-428
labor market effects, 389
local government effects, 25-26
metropolitan patterns, 394-399
motivations, 423-424
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nested logit model analysis, 410-413, 428-432
patterns, 388-389, 392, 401
policy issues, 410
prejudice and, 404, 424
regional and nonmetro, 399
spillover effects, 420-423
state trends, 392-394
International trade, 8
demand side models, 218
factor content analysis, 224-230
factor price equalization, 8, 210
general equilibrium models, 208-219
Heckscher-Olin model, 211-215
immigration surplus in two-goods economy, 207-208
increasing returns to scale, 216-217
migration linkages, 206, 223-234
modified factor price equalization model, 213-215
policymaking, 231-233
Ricardian model, 215-216
wage levels and, 8-9, 223-234J
Jamaica, 374-375L
Labor markets, 8
capital-labor ratio, 320-322
capital ownership by workers, 321-322
economic growth-immigration linkages, 291
employment-based immigration policy, 51-52
employment rates across female cohorts, 243, 249-251, 260-275, 281 -286
employment rates across male cohorts, 269-270, 282-286
geographic variation, 11-12
historical participation of immigrants, 319-320
historical supply of human capital, 330-331
historical wage-immigration linkages, 331-334
immigrant outcomes, 48-51
immigration surplus in two-goods economy, 207-208
impacts of immigration, 2
increasing returns to scale, 216-217
internal migration of less-skilled workers, 407-413, 416-417, 419-423, 425
macroeconomic models of immigration, 306, 307
occupational distribution of arriving immigrants, 50-51
outcomes for immigrant men, 282-286
outcomes for immigrant women, 9-10, 239-240
productivity, 315, 333
upward mobility of immigrants, 350
wage levels across female cohorts, 243-246, 249, 252-253, 275-280, 286
wage-trade linkages, 223-234
wages and, 8-9
Language skills, 48
among female immigrant cohorts, 243, 254-255
bilingual education, 97, 121, 191
employment rates across female cohorts, 263-264, 266-268
Latin American immigrants, 5
in California, 121, 133, 136, 137, 140, 141, 143, 149, 150-151, 158, 163
distribution patterns, 389-392
New Jersey household fiscal impacts, 77-80, 81-82, 86
New Jersey sociodemographic data, 75, 77
in prisons, 373
trends among women, 242
See also Hispanic immigrants
Local government
cost-benefit modeling, 25-27
expense allocation to households, 70
fiscal impacts of immigration, 68, 83-86, 167, 192-193
revenues (California), 130
revenues (New Jersey), 115-116
spending among households (New Jersey), 83-86, 112-115
Longitudinal studies, 2, 6-7, 183-184
vs. cross-sectional analysis, 199, 200-201M
Marital status
among female immigrant cohorts, 246, 248, 255
employment rates across female immigrant cohorts, 264, 268
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immigration statistics, 45-46
wage levels across female immigrant cohorts, 275-276, 277
Massachusetts
Boston, 370, 397
internal migration patterns, 393, 413
Medicaid, 78-80, 100-103
California consumption/expenditures, 141
New Jersey government expenditures, 100-101
1994-1995 consumption/expenditures, 191
Medical care
California government expenditures, 131
pharmaceutical assistance, 103-104
Medicare, California consumption/expenditures, 131, 140, 163, 164-165
Mexico
incarcerated immigrants from, 373, 374-375, 381-382
labor market outcomes across emigrant cohorts, 271, 275, 280, 286
migration-trade linkage, 206
Migrant workers, 302
Mortality
determinants of, 40-41
modeling fiscal impacts of immigration, 42-43N
Natives
consumption of government services, 5-6, 52-54
fertility patterns, 255-258, 349-350
fiscal impacts (California), 141-168
fiscal impacts (New Jersey), 77-86
household characteristics (California), 133, 136, 137, 140-141
incarceration rate, 374
internal migration patterns, 388-389
labor force participation, 319-320
labor market outcomes for women, 266, 268-269
occupational skills, 291, 309-314
out-migration from high-immigration areas, 401-413
out-migration from high-immigration states, 416-417, 419-423
public assistance consumption, 67
savings and consumption patterns, 54-55, 325
taxes paid, 5-6
Nested logit model analysis, 410-413, 428-432
Nevada, 413
Las Vegas, 397-399
New Jersey, 3-5, 6
fiscal impacts of immigration, 68, 69, 168
fiscal impacts research, methodology, and data sources, 86-116
internal migration patterns, 392-393, 407
local expenditures, 112-115
local level fiscal impacts of immigration, 83-86
local revenues, 115-116
sociodemographics of immigrant population, 72-77
state expenditures, 93-108
state level fiscal impacts of immigration, 77-83
state revenues, 109-112
New York
homicide rate, 369-370, 372
internal migration patterns, 392-393, 397, 404, 413, 416, 417, 419 -423
North American Free Trade Agreement, 206
North Carolina, 399
Numbers of immigrants
historical patterns, 10, 290, 292-298
illegal, 373
in jails and prisons, 367, 372-373, 381-382
1994-1995, 186-187
as source of population change, 297-298O
Old-age support, 345-347
Organized crime, 371P
Penal system
data sources, 372-373, 380-381
detention before trial, 376, 381
distribution of countries of origin, 373-375, 381
immigrant population in, 367, 372-373, 381-382
immigrant risk of imprisonment, 375-376
native population, 374
Pennsylvania, 413
Philadelphia, 370
Pension systems, 345
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Physical capital, 322-325
Policymaking
in California, 121
criminal justice issues, 367, 382
effects on immigration, 290, 305
employment-based preferences, 51-52
federal compensation to high immigration states, 197
historical understanding of immigration effects, 350-352
implications of internal migration, 424-428
internal migration patterns, 410
trade and immigration, 231-233
turn of the century immigration law, 368-369
Population growth
fiscal impact modeling, 27-39
immigration as source of change in, 297-298, 314
theoretical framework for modeling, 14, 27
Portland, Oregon, 397-399
Poverty across female immigrant cohorts, 246
Productivity, 315, 333
Prohibition, 369
Property taxes, 107, 147-148, 171-173, 190-191
Public perception and understanding, 404
concerns about immigrant crime, 367-369, 371-372, 378R
Remigration
historical patterns, 302-305, 306
modeling fiscal effects of immigrants, 41, 42-43
Ricardian model of international trade, 215-216S
Savings behavior
capital ownership by workers, 321-322
fiscal impacts of immigration, 32-33, 61
generational modeling, 15
home ownership trends, 326
immigrant patterns, 323-325
of immigrants, 54-55
physical capital formation, 322-325
Self-employment, 50, 325
Skill levels of immigrants, 46
consumption of government services and, 52-54
destination patterns and, 390, 412
general equilibrium models of international trade, 209-219
historical trend, 290-291, 308-314
internal migration of low-skilled workers, 409-410
internal migration patterns, 388-389, 404
language fluency, 48
motivation to migrate and, 308
occupational distribution, 50-51, 313-314
occupations on arrival, 310-313
policy issues, 307-308
relative to natives, 291, 309-310
trends, 239
U.S. policy, 51-52
See also Educational attainments;
High-skilled labor;
Unskilled labor
Social Security, 345-347
California consumption/expenditures, 140-141, 143-144, 150, 163, 164-165
immigrant age distribution and, 43
immigrant consumption, 43
1994-1995 consumption/expenditures, 189-190
Supplemental Security Income
California government expenditures, 141, 164
New Jersey government expenditures, 102-103T
Tax payments, 3
California households, 125-126, 128-130, 141-150, 168-175
California immigrants, 121
cost-benefit analysis of fiscal impacts, 20-22
cross-sectional analysis, 187-192, 201-204
family composition factors, 45-46
fiscal impacts of immigrants (1994-1995), 192-201
historical effects of immigration, 11
immigrant vs. native households, 5-6, 68
multi-period analysis, 23-24
New Jersey households, 80-82, 90, 91, 109-112, 115-116
obstacles to modeling, 185
population growth modeling, 30, 32-33
research methodology, 13-14
theoretical model, 15-16, 19, 27
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transfers, 18-19
worker skill level, multi-period analysis, 33-34
Technological innovation and invention, 326-328
Tennessee, 399
Texas
Austin, 399
El Paso, 376, 378
Houston, 404
internal migration patterns, 392-393, 394, 397, 407, 413, 416
Tourism, 5
Transfer payments, 18-19
age-mediated effects, 43-44
cost-benefit analysis, 20
educational services, 347-349
family composition correlated with, 45-46
income distribution effects of immigration, 291-292, 334
intergovernmental, 26-27
multi-period analysis, 22-23
1994-1995, 187
old-age support programs, 345-347
through social spending, 339-345
uneven distribution of immigration effects, 207U
Unskilled labor
elasticity of demand, 11-12
in fiscal impacts of population growth, 33-34
geographic variation, 11-12
occupations of arriving immigrants, 310
wage-trade linkage, 223
See also Skill levels of immigrantsW
Wages
across female immigrant cohorts, 243-246, 249, 252-253, 275-281
among male immigrant cohorts, 277-278
capital-labor ratio, 320-321
cohort and assimilation effects, 258-259
estimating, for female immigrants, 241
factor price equilization model, 210
female immigrants, 9-10
general effects of immigration, 192, 291-292
geographic variation, 12
Heckscher-Olin model of international trade, 211-215
immigrant patterns, 48-51
immigration effects, 315, 316, 331-334
immigration-related inequality, 334-339
international factor price convergence, 219-223
international trade and, 8
labor markets and, 8-9
measuring immigrant effects, 317
migration-trade linkage, 206-207, 223-234
regional variation, 337-339
trade vs. immigration effects, 230-231
U.S. trends, 206-207
See also Income
Washington, D.C., 397
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