Index
A
Accomplishments
birth through age four, 58, 59
Adults, 1
day care providers, 43
interaction with children, general, 14, 16, 17
reading to and with children, general, 10, 13, 14, 17, 134, 143
talking with children, 36, 50-52, 134
birth through age four, 17, 19-20, 23, 28, 30
see also Families;
Parents;
Questions;
Teachers
birth through age four, 21, 28, 29, 54-55, 57
computer-based instruction, 57, 121
curriculum, optimal, 129
day care settings, 54
identifying/preventing difficulties, 127
second and third grades, 108
teacher certification, 123
see also Letter identification;
Print awareness;
Word recognition
Apples and Bananas, 22
Assessment, see Evaluation;
Screening and identification
Attitude, see Motivation and attitude
Audiovisual presentations
audiotaped stories, 35, 50, 74, 120
birth through age four, 37, 135
see also Computer-assisted instruction
Auditory impairments, see Hearing impairments
B
Babysitters, see Day care environments
Beliefs, see Motivation and attitude
Bilingual education, 124, 130, 131, 132
Birth through age four, 1-2, 4, 8, 14, 15-60, 153
alphabetic principle, 21, 28, 29, 54-55, 57
audiovisual presentations, 37, 135
book reading, 8-9, 17, 19, 20, 22, 27-28, 37, 38, 52-53, 59
access to, 8-9, 17, 37, 38, 53
libraries and librarians, 36, 37, 38, 53
classroom design, 45
computer-based instruction, 47, 49, 56-57
conceptual knowledge, 10, 36, 44, 60
directionality, concept of, 18, 60
emergent writing, 15, 17, 30, 32, 37, 45, 55-56, 59, 60
see also “parents” below
funding, 138
grammar, 19
identifying/preventing difficulties, 24, 42, 128, 137, 138-139
language skills, general, 1, 2, 6, 15-17, 18, 44, 138
letter identification, 34, 53, 54-55, 57, 59
listening comprehension, 50, 52
literacy, general, 1, 7, 8, 15-17, 18, 42, 44, 45, 120, 137, 139, 148
computer-based instruction, 56-57
play activities, 37
teacher knowledge of, 123
motivation, 7, 8, 10, 13, 37, 42, 44, 60
motor skills, 8, 18, 60, 74, 138
parents, 1, 2, 4, 6, 10, 17, 18-20, 27, 30, 42
phonological awareness, 20-22, 46-48, 50, 55
pictures, 10, 15, 17, 23, 25, 28, 36, 37, 59, 88
list of 100 great picture books, 38-41
pretend reading, 17
print awareness, 18, 27-28, 29, 30, 32-33, 52, 55, 59
questions posed to children, 20, 21, 32, 35, 36, 37, 44, 55
reading problems, 24, 42, 128, 137, 138-139
rhymes and songs, 17, 19, 20-22, 24, 42, 43, 46, 47-48, 57, 59, 135
spelling, 55-56
spoken words, 18, 19, 35, 50, 56
storybooks, 15, 19, 26, 44, 45, 51, 52, 57
talking with adults, 17, 19-20, 23, 28, 30, 36, 50-52
teachers, 44, 45, 50-51, 52, 58, 60
teaching activities, 2, 9, 11, 19, 21, 23-25, 26, 29, 32-35, 37, 47-56, 58
talking with children, 17, 19-20, 23, 27, 28, 30, 36, 50-51
vocabulary, 6, 8, 19-20, 35, 50-51, 59, 60
word recognition, 17, 19, 34, 44, 57, 59, 60
emergent writing, 15, 17, 30, 32, 37, 45, 55-56, 59, 60
see Day care environments;
Emergent reading
access to books, 53, 62, 63, 65, 74, 76, 127, 134, 135, 143
birth through age four, 8-9, 17, 36, 37, 38, 53
see also Libraries and librarians
birth through age four, 8-9, 17, 19, 20, 22, 27-28, 37, 38, 52-53, 59
curriculum, optimal, 129
day care settings, 53
sound-focused, 22
summer reading lists, 10
see also Storybooks
C
Capitalization, letters, 80, 82, 85, 92, 94-95, 107
Child care settings, see Day care environments
Choral reading, see Group reading
Classroom design
first grade, 62-63
kindergarten, 72
preschool, 45
Classroom support, 140
Class size
first grade, 87
poor children, 62
see also Student-teacher ratios
Cognitive deficits, 128, 136, 137, 138
intelligence quotient, 136, 138
special education, 112, 127, 131, 138, 140
Cognitive skills
birth through age four, 18, 60
problem-solving activities, 5, 32
second and third grades, 111
space and directionality, 18, 60
teacher education, 123
Comprehension, see Reading comprehension
Computer-assisted instruction, 120-121
birth through age four, 47, 49, 56-57
Internet resources, 165-167
K-3, 63
phonemic awareness, 47
second grade, 114
World Wide Web, resources available, 165-167
Conceptual knowledge, 10, 117, 129, 134
birth through age four, 10, 36, 44, 60
labeling and labeling games, 19, 29, 37, 49, 59, 72, 86
pedagogical, 123-124
second and third grades, 111, 118, 119
see also Questions;
Reading for meaning;
Summarizing
Conversation, adults talking with children, 36, 134
birth through age four, 17, 19-20, 23, 28, 30, 36, 50-52
kindergarten, 70-72
parents, 17, 19-20, 27, 50-51, 52, 89, 135
see also Questions
Cost factors
computer instruction, 120
remedial programs, 130
teacher training, 122
CROWD questions, 52
Cultural factors, 62
see also Dialects;
English as a second language;
Minority groups
Curricular design, general, 2
birth through age four, 45, 46
comprehensive, 129
defined, 147
identifying/preventing problems, 131
optimal, 129-130
second and third grades, 108, 110-111
spelling, 102
teacher certification, 124
see also Instructional materials;
Teaching activities
Curriculum casualties, 130, 147
D
Day care environments, 1, 18, 32, 43, 44, 53-54, 136
books, access to, 53
Deafness, see Hearing impairments
Decoding
computer instruction, 120
curriculum, optimal, 129
kindergarten, 78-81
second and third grades, 108, 110, 113, 115, 118
Developmental factors, see Birth through age four;
Cognitive deficits
Diagnostics, see Screening and identification
Dialogic reading, see Paired reading
Dictation activities, 51, 66, 85, 129
Dictionaries, letters of the alphabet
first grade, 92
Directionality, concept of, 18, 60
Disabilities
cognitive deficits, 128, 136, 137, 138
special education, 112, 127, 131, 138, 140
early language impairments, 24, 42, 44, 136, 137, 148
hearing impairments, 24, 136, 137
learning disabilities, 5, 112, 128, 136, 140
speech impairments, 24
Dramatic play, 26-27, 49, 72-73, 85, 101, 114, 115, 129
Dyadic reading, see Paired reading
E
Early childhood development, see Birth through age four;
Day care environments;
Emergent reading;
Emergent writing
Early language impairments, 24, 42, 44, 136, 137
defined, 148
letter identification, 15, 42, 141
Economic factors, see Cost factors;
Funding;
Poverty
Emergent reading, 1, 28, 37, 85
defined, 148
pretend reading, 17, 28, 37, 59
teacher education on, 60
videotaped, 51
Emergent writing
birth through age four, 15, 17, 30, 32, 37, 45, 55-56, 59, 60
defined, 148
first grade, 88, 89, 102-106, 107
invented spelling, 10, 45, 55-56, 85, 88, 102, 105, 107
kindergarten, 10, 65, 81-84, 85
teacher education on, 60
Employment, 5
English as a second language, 5, 130-132
bilingual education, 124, 130, 131, 132
teacher certification, 124
Ethnic groups, see Minority groups
Evaluation
continuous classroom assessment, 10, 123
peer, 103
teachers, 122-123
see also Screening and identification;
Standards
Explicit instruction, general, 96, 111, 112, 129
Expressive language capacity
defined, 148
delayed development, 136
see also Spoken words
F
Families
birth through age four, 18, 27, 139
Internet resources, 166
see also Adults;
Parents
alphabetic principle, 91, 92-94, 102
conceptual knowledge, 90, 98-100, 107
goals, 10, 88, 90, 96, 102, 107
group instruction, other, 63, 64, 87, 96
instructional materials, 92, 93, 94, 95
language skills, general, 96-102, 106
letter identification, 63, 88, 90-96, 102, 106, 107
phonics, 10, 86, 96, 102, 106, 107
pictures, diagrams and charts, 89, 91, 92, 93, 101, 102, 103, 105
questions posed to children, 93, 98, 99-100, 102, 107
reading comprehension, general, 88, 96-102, 107
reciprocal teaching, 112
spelling, 10, 62, 63, 88, 91, 95, 102-106, 107
teaching activities, 62-63, 87, 90-106
word recognition, 10, 63, 88, 94-96, 99, 107
writing, 10, 62, 63, 101, 102-106, 107
emergent writing, 88, 89, 102-106, 107
see also Primary grades, general
Fluency, 6
curriculum, optimal, 129
defined, 148
K-3, 62
second and third grades, 110, 113, 114
see also Alphabetic principle;
Frustration level;
Phonemic awareness;
Reading comprehension;
Word recognition
Follow the Leader, 74
Foreign language speakers, see English as a second language
Frequency of reading, 53, 64, 96, 111
defined, 148
Funding, 140-141
birth through age four, 138
early grades, 140
poor children, funding for, 133-134
G
Games, see Play-based instruction
Government role
funding, 133-134, 138, 140-141
politics and policy makers, 1, 5-6, 11, 140-141
Group reading
kindergarten, 74
second and third grades, 112
see also Small-group instruction
H
Health care professionals, 14, 24, 134-135, 136
Health care services, Internet resources, 167
Hearing impairments, 24, 136, 137
Hickory Dickory Dock, 82
High-risk children, see Risk factors
Hispanic persons, see Spanish speakers
Home environment, see Families;
Parents
Homework, 10
see also Independent reading
I
I Can Hear the Rain, 47
Identification of problems, see Screening and identification
IEP (Individualized educational program), see Tutors and tutoring
Income, see Poverty
Independent reading, 10, 11, 64
curriculum, optimal, 129
second and third grades, 10, 108-115 (passim), 118
Individual instruction, see Tutors and tutoring
Instructional materials, 47, 112
access to books, 53, 62, 63, 65, 74, 76, 127, 134, 135, 143
birth through age four, 8-9, 17, 37, 38, 53
see also Libraries and librarians
birth through age four, 29, 49, 54, 55
letter recognition, 54, 83, 84, 92
second and third grades, 108
see also Audiovisual presentations;
Book reading;
Curricular design
Instructional methods, see Teaching activities
Internet resources, 165-167
Interventions, see Preventive interventions;
Remedial interventions;
Special education
Invented spelling, 10, 45, 55-56, 85, 88, 102, 105, 107
defined, 149
K
conceptual knowledge, 65, 71, 85
decoding, 78-81
identification/prevention of difficulties, 138
poor children, programs, 133-134, 138
letter identification, 10, 53, 68-69, 74, 78-81, 82, 85
listening comprehension, 65, 68, 70, 74, 75, 85
phonemic awareness, 65, 68-69, 85
print awareness, 10, 65, 66, 74, 85
questions posed to children, 70, 74, 85
reading problems, 138
poor children, programs, 133-134, 138
storybooks, 65, 66, 70, 72, 74, 75
summarizing, 74
teaching activities, 66-84
vocabulary, 10, 70, 71, 72, 82, 85
word recognition, 10, 78-82, 85
writing, 10, 65, 66, 81-84, 85
Knowledge, conceptual, see Conceptual knowledge
L
Language-minority children, see Dialects;
English as a second language
Language skills, general
birth through age four, 1, 2, 6, 15-17, 18, 44, 45, 138
identification/prevention of difficulties, 138
early language impairments, 24, 42, 44, 136, 137, 148
Hispanics, 130
milestones, defined, 149
see also Oral reading
primary grades, 10
second and third grades, 108, 114, 115, 117, 118, 119
teacher certification, 123
see also English as a second language;
Literacy;
specific skills
Learning disabilities
funding, 140
identification/preventive of difficulties, 5, 128, 136
Internet resources, 166
reciprocal teaching, 112
see also Cognitive deficits;
Special education
Letter identification, 7, 8, 10
birth through age four, 34, 53, 54-55, 57, 59
capitalization, letters, 80, 82, 85, 92, 94-95, 107
computer-based instruction, 57
first grade, 63, 88, 90-96, 102, 106, 107
kindergarten, 10, 53, 68-69, 74, 78-81, 82, 85
letter dictionaries, 83, 84, 92
second and third grades, 10, 110, 113, 114, 115, 119
see also Alphabetic principle;
Capitalization
Letters (correspondence)
teacher-parent, 128
written by children, 10, 30, 63, 66
Libraries and librarians, 10, 143
birth through age four, 36, 37, 38, 53
kindergarten, 76
New York Public Library’s list of 100 great picture books, 38-41
Limited-proficiency English, see English as a second language
Listening comprehension
birth through age four, 50, 52
first grade, 105
kindergarten, 65, 68, 70, 74, 75, 85
speech discrimination, defined, 150
teacher education on, 60
see also Oral reading
birth through age four, 1, 7, 8, 15-17, 18, 42, 44, 45, 120, 137, 139, 148
computer-based instruction, 56-57
play activities, 37
teacher knowledge of, 123
computer instruction, 120, 121
conceptual knowledge, 9, 65, 123-124
defined, 149
emergent, defined, 148
family programs, 139
identifying/preventing difficulties, 120, 135, 137, 138
primary school, individual children, background, 61, 64
second and third grades, 111, 112, 119
Local risk factors, see Poverty;
School-based factors
M
Medical professionals, see Health care professionals
Memory, see Letter identification;
Summarizing;
Word recognition
Mental retardation, see Cognitive deficits;
Special education
African Americans, 133
see also English as a second language
Motivation and attitude, 20
computers in the classroom, 120
English as a second language, 132
first grade, 96
identifying/preventing difficulties, 127, 139
parents, 139
questions posed to children,
birth through age four, 20, 21, 32, 35, 36, 37
first grade, 93, 98, 99-100, 102, 107
second and third grades, 112, 113, 114, 115, 118
second and third grades, 108, 110, 113
see also Frustration level;
Independent reading
N
Narrative comprehension, 35, 59
day care settings, 53
first grade, 63
predicting, reading comprehension, 10, 26
second and third grades, story maps, 110-111, 118
teacher education on, 60
see also Dramatic play
New York Public Library, list of 100 great picture books, 38-41
Non-English speakers, see English as a second language
Non-standard dialects, see Dialects
Norm-referencing, teacher certification, 123
Nursery rhymes, see Rhymes and songs
O
This Old Man, 48
Oral language skills, general, 7, 8, 88, 130
Oral reading, 7
birth through age four, 20, 52
curriculum, optimal, 129
first grade, 10, 63, 88, 94-96, 97, 107
group reading, 74, 88, 97, 112
paired reading, 35, 63, 74, 93, 110, 112
parents, reading to and with children, 2, 16-17, 20, 111, 135, 143
pretend reading, 17, 28, 37, 59
second and third grades, 110, 111, 113, 114, 115, 119
Orthography, see Spelling
health care professionals, 14, 24, 134-135, 136
P
Paired reading, 35, 63, 74, 93, 110, 112
birth through age four, 1, 2, 4, 6, 10, 17, 18-20, 27, 30, 42
Hispanics, 130
Internet resources, 166-167
kindergarten, 74
reading problems
identifying/preventing, 128, 131, 135, 137, 138
parents with, 137
reading to and with children, 2, 16-17, 20, 111, 135, 143
second and third grades, 110
talking with children, 17, 19-20, 27, 50-51, 52, 89, 135
teacher communication with, 45, 127, 128
see also Adults;
Families
Pediatricians, 14, 24, 134-135
PEER sequence, 52
Phonemes
birth through age four, 21
computer-based instruction, 47
defined, 149
invented spelling, 10, 45, 55-56, 85, 88, 102, 105, 107, 149
see also Decoding
Phoneme segmentation
curriculum, optimal, 129
defined, 149
first grade, 107
invented spelling and, 10
Phonemic awareness
birth through age four, 46-47, 57
computer-based instruction, 57
curriculum, optimal, 129
defined, 149
dialect speakers, 133
first grade, 10, 88, 90-94, 102, 107
invented spelling and, 10
computer instruction, 121
curriculum, optimal, 129
defined, 150
first grade, 10, 86, 96, 102, 106, 107
invented spelling and, 10
reading difficulties, 141
dialect speakers, 133
second and third grades, 10, 110, 113, 114, 118, 119
birth through age four, 20-22, 46-48, 50, 55
computer instruction, 120, 121
defined, 150
early deficits, 15
kindergarten, 66-70
see also Rhymes and songs
Phonological decoding, see Decoding
Phonology
birth through age four, 23, 57
computer-based instruction, 57
defined, 150
dialect speakers, 133
teacher certification, 123
see also Dialects;
Hearing impairments;
Phoneme segmentation;
Phonemic awareness;
Phonological awareness;
Rhymes and songs;
Spoken words
Play-based instruction, 49
alliteration, 42
birth through age four, 44
dramatic play, 26-27, 49, 72-73, 85, 101, 114, 115, 129
labeling and labeling games, 19, 29, 37, 49, 59, 72, 86
letter recognition, 55
parents, 42
see also Pretend reading
second grade, 114
see also Rhymes and songs;
Word games
Poetry, see Rhymes and songs
Policy makers and political factors, 1, 5-6, 11, 140-141
early language environments, 44
first grade, 62
language disabilities programs, 24
Practice, 112
frequency of reading, 53, 64, 96, 111
homework, 10
see Play-based instruction
Predicting, reading comprehension, 10, 26
curriculum, optimal, 129
kindergarten, 85
second and third grades, 112
Predictors of reading difficulties, see Risk factors
Preschool education, see Birth through age four;
Day care environments;
Emergent reading;
Emergent writing
Pretend reading, 17, 28, 37, 59
Pretend writing, see Emergent writing
Preventive interventions, 13, 127-145, 153
birth through age four, 128, 137, 138-139
defined, 149
Primary grades, general, 1, 11, 14
books, access to, 9
see also First Grade;
Kindergarten;
Second and third grades
Primary prevention, see Preventive interventions
birth through age four, 18, 27-28, 29, 30, 32-33, 52, 55, 59
curriculum, optimal, 129
day care settings, 53
kindergarten, 10, 65, 66, 74, 85
see also Letter identification
Problems with reading, see Reading problems
Professionals, see Health care professionals;
Libraries and librarians;
Specialists;
Teachers
Psychological factors, see Motivation and attitude
Q
Questions
birth through age four, 20, 21, 32, 35, 36, 37, 44, 55
first grade, 93, 98, 99-100, 102, 107
K-3 teachers, 63
labeling games, 19
print awareness, 33
problem-solving activities, 5, 32
reciprocal teaching, 112
second and third grades, 112, 113, 114, 115, 118
word-picture associations, 24-25
R
Race-ethnicity, see Minority groups
Readiness, see Reading readiness
Reading aloud, see Oral reading
Reading comprehension, general, 6, 7, 10, 13, 101
audiotapes and, 35
defined, 147
developmental stages, general, 35
K-3, 62
identifying/preventing difficulties, 127, 128
second and third grades, 108, 110-111, 112, 115, 117, 118, 119
teachers,
certification of, 123
identifying/preventing difficulties, 128
see also Fluency;
Narrative comprehension;
Predicting, reading comprehension;
Summarizing
curriculum, optimal, 129
first grade, 93
second and third grades, 10, 108, 110, 117
see also Phonological awareness;
Summarizing
Reading level
English as a second language, 132
Hispanics, 130
first-second grade summer reading skill losses, 108
second and third grades, 108, 110, 111, 113, 118, 119
Reading problems, 11, 13, 127-128, 130-145
birth through age four, 24, 42, 128, 137, 138-139
cognitive deficits, 128, 136, 137, 138
intelligence quotient, 136, 138
special education, 112, 127, 131, 138, 140
curriculum casualties, 130, 147
defined, 150
English as a second language, 5, 124, 130, 132
Hispanics, 130-132
first-second grade summer reading skill losses, 108
kindergarten, 138
poor children, programs, 133-133, 138
literacy general, 120, 135, 137, 138
local factors,
school-based factors, 130, 131-132, 140
parents, 128, 131, 135, 137, 138
school-based, 130, 131-132, 140
second and third grades, 108, 111
special education, 112, 127, 131, 138, 140
teachers, identification/prevention roles, 128, 131, 141
see also Disabilities;
Poverty;
Preventive interventions;
Remedial interventions;
Screening and identification
Remedial interventions, 13, 127
defined, 149
K-3, 61
“pull-out,” 128
reciprocal teaching, 112
see also Special education;
Tutors and tutoring
Repeating (grade level), 45
first grade, 97
third grade, 115
Retardation, see Cognitive deficits;
Special education
Retention in grade, preschool quality and, 45
Rhymes and songs
birth through age four, 17, 19, 20-22, 24, 42, 43, 46, 47-48, 57, 59, 135
computer-based instruction, 57, 121
curriculum, optimal, 129
early childhood learning difficulties, 24, 42
specific rhymes and songs,
Apples and Bananas, 22
Follow the Leader, 74
Hickory Dickory Dock, 82
I Can Hear the Rain, 47
This Old Man, 48
The Spider, 48
Teddy Bear, 21
Rime, see Onset-rime
defined, 150
reciprocal teaching, 112
see also English as a second language;
Poverty;
Preventive interventions;
School-based factors;
Screening and identification
S
School-based factors
reading problems, 130, 131-132, 140
student-teacher ratios, 134, 138
see also Teachers
Screening and identification, reading problems, 141
classroom, ongoing, 10
health care professionals, 24, 134
language disabilities programs, 24
school-level factors, 130, 131
specialists, 136
volunteer tutors, screening of, 142
see also Outreach;
Risk factors
Second and third grades, 108-120
alphabetic principle, 108
computer-based instruction, 114
conceptual knowledge, 111, 118, 119
curricular design, 108, 110-111
decoding, 108, 110, 113, 115, 118
goals outlined, 10, 108, 117-119
independent reading, 10, 108-114 (passim), 118
language skills, general, 108, 114, 115, 117, 118, 119
letter identification, 10, 110, 113, 114, 115, 119
literacy, general, 111, 112, 119
oral reading, 110, 111, 113, 114, 115, 119
phonics, 10, 110, 113, 114, 118, 119
pictures, diagrams and charts, 111, 114, 118
questions posed to children, 112, 113, 114, 115, 118
reading comprehension, general, 108, 110-111, 112, 115, 117, 118, 119
reading level, 108, 110, 111, 113, 118, 119
spelling, 108, 114, 117, 118, 119
vocabulary, 110, 111, 114, 115, 117
writing, 111, 114, 115, 117, 118, 119
see also Primary grades, general
Second-language speakers, see English as a second language
Shared reading, see Group reading;
Paired reading
Sight word recognition, 7
curriculum, optimal, 129
K-3, 62
Singing, see Rhymes and songs
Small-group instruction
audiotaped books, 51
curriculum, optimal, 129
see also Group reading
Sociodramatic play, see Dramatic play
Socioeconomic status, see Poverty
Software, see Computer-based instruction
Songs, see Rhymes and songs
Sounds, see Phonics;
Phonology
Space/directionality, concepts of, 18, 60
Special education, 112, 127, 131, 138, 140
Specialists, 87, 123, 134, 136, 139, 140, 141
health care professionals, 14, 24, 134-135, 136
speech-language therapists, 24, 44
see also Teachers;
Tutors and tutoring
Speech, see Listening comprehension;
Oral reading;
Phonology;
Spoken words
Speech impairments, 24
Speech-language therapists, 24, 44
Speech sounds, see Phonology
birth through age four, 55-56
computer instruction, 120
curriculum, optimal, 129
first grade, 10, 62, 63, 88, 91, 95, 102-106, 107
invented spelling, 10, 45, 55-56, 85, 88, 102, 105, 107, 149
orthographic awareness, defined, 149
primary grades, general, 10
teacher certification, 123
see also Phonics
The Spider, 48
Spoken words, 23-24
birth through age four, 18, 19, 35, 50, 56
computer instruction, 120
curriculum, optimal, 129
developmental stages, 35
English as a second language, 132
Hispanics, 130
hearing impairments, 24, 136, 137
kindergarten, 66
listening comprehension, 60, 65, 68, 70, 74, 75, 85
see also Conversation;
Oral reading;
Phonemic awareness;
Phonological awareness;
Phonology
Standards, teacher certification, 122-123
Storybooks, 36
birth through age four, 15, 19, 26, 44, 45, 51, 52, 57
computer-based instruction, 57, 120
day care settings, 53
developmental stages in reading, general, 35
Internet resources, 165-166
kindergarten, 65, 66, 70, 72, 74, 75
computer-based instruction, 57, 121
kindergarten, 66
Student-teacher ratios, 134, 138
see also Small-group instruction;
Tutors and tutoring
Summarizing, 10
curriculum, optimal, 129
kindergarten, 74
second and third grades, 112, 117
Summer reading lists, 10
T
Talking, see Conversation
Talking books, 25, 50, 74, 120
Teacher education, 122-124
birth through age four, 58, 60
identifying/preventing difficulties, 131, 141
Teachers
approach to book at hand, 1, 4, 5
birth through age four, 44, 45, 50-51, 52, 58, 60
certification, 122-124
day care, 53
first grade, 86, 87, 91, 98, 102
parents, relations with, 127, 128
print awareness, 32
reading/storytelling, 21
reciprocal teaching, 150
second and third grades, 108, 110-112
see also Student-teacher ratios;
Tutors and tutoring
Teaching activities, 10
birth through age four, 2, 9, 11, 19, 21, 23-25, 26, 29, 32-35, 37, 47-56, 58
talking with children, 17, 19-20, 23, 27, 28, 30, 36, 50-51
first grade, 62-63, 87, 90-106
kindergarten, 66-84
see also specific activities
Teaching materials, see Instructional materials;
Toys
Teddy Bear, 21
Third grade, see Primary grades, general;
Second and third grades
Time factors
birth through age four, preschool routines, 45
book reading by children, 53
first-second grade summer reading skill losses, 108
parents reading to children, 2
writing frequency, 10
see also Frequency of reading
Trips, see Outings
Tutors and tutoring, 2, 61, 141, 144
first grade, 87
individualized education programs, 140
program development, 1, 127-128
volunteer, 74, 87, 127, 141, 142
V
Videotapes, see Audiovisual presentations
Vocabulary, 13
birth through age four, 6, 8, 19-20, 35, 50-51, 59, 60
dialect speakers, 133
early language development, 6, 8, 19-20, 35
K-3, 62
kindergarten, 10, 70, 71, 72, 82, 85
second and third grades, 110, 111, 114, 115, 117
see also Sight word recognition;
Word recognition
Volunteer tutors, 74, 87, 127, 141, 142
W
Word attack, 23
computer instruction, 121
defined, 150-151
Word decoding, see Decoding
labeling and labeling games, 19, 29, 37, 49, 59, 72, 86
see also Rhymes and songs
Word recognition, 6, 7, 11, 23
adult interaction with children, 16
automaticity and, 88, 94, 108;
see also Sight word recognition
birth through age four, 17, 19, 34, 44, 57, 59, 60
computer-based instruction, 57
defined, 151
first grade, 10, 63, 88, 94-96, 99, 107
second and third grades, 10, 108, 113, 115, 117, 118, 119
teacher certification, 123
see also Alphabetic principle;
Frustration level;
Spoken words;
Word games
World Wide Web, resources available, 165-167
birth through age four, 49, 51, 55-56
computer instruction, 120, 121
curriculum, optimal, 129
dictation activities, 51, 66, 85, 129
first grade, 10, 62, 63, 101, 102-106, 107
kindergarten, 10, 65, 66, 81-84, 85
letters, correspondence, 10, 30, 63, 66
primary grades, 10
second and third grades, 111, 114, 115, 117, 118, 119
see also Alphabetic principle;
Emergent writing;
Spelling