Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline

TABLE 12-1 Studies Reporting on Cholinergic Effects and Fishy Body Odor after Excess Choline Intake

Study	No. of Subjects	Dose	Duration (wk)	Adverse Effects
Growdon et al., 1977a^a	20	9 g/d (wk 1); 12 g/d (wk 2)^b^,^c	2	Mild cholinergic toxicity: lacrimation, blurred vision, anorexia, and diarrhea.
Growdon et al., 1977b	10	8–20 g/d^d	2–17	Fishy body odor in all subjects; at 250–300 mg/ kg/d, produced lacrimation, anorexia, vomiting, and diarrhea.
Gelenberg et al., 1979^e	5	8–19 g/d^d	6–8	100% with fishy body odor after several days; gastrointestinal irritation.^f
Lawrence et al., 1980^g	14	0.2 g/d (3 wk); 9 g/d (3 wk) ^c^,^d	6	At 150 mg/kg/d: 5 of 14 with fishy body odor; 12 of 15 with nausea and diarrhea.
^a Study involved a double-blind, crossover protocol. ^b Choline was given as a chloride or bitartrate. ^c Doses were calculated from data in the report using a reference body weight of 61 kg. Depending on the body weights of the individuals in Lawrence et al. (1980) and Growdon et al. (1977a), the lowest-effect dose may be less than 7.5 g/d. ^d Choline was given as a chloride. ^e Nonblinded study; did not include a control group. ^f Mild, transient Parkinsonian signs (bradykinesia, tremor, and rigidity) were also reported. ^g Double-blind protocol; included control group.

because no specific physiological function might be expected to affect sensitivity to excess amounts of choline in older persons, no adjustments are proposed for the elderly.

UL for Adults

19 years and older

3.5 g/day of choline

Other Life Stage Groups

For infants, the UL was judged not determinable because of lack of data concerning adverse effects in this age group and concern

Table of Contents

Front Matter R1-R24

Summary 1-16

1 Introduction to Dietary Reference Intakes 17-26

2 The B Vitamins and Choline: Overview and Methods 27-40

3 A Model for the Development of Tolerable Upper Intake Levels 41-57

4 Thiamin 58-86

5 Riboflavin 87-122

6 Niacin 123-149

7 Vitamin B6 150-195

8 Folate 196-305

9 Vitamin B12 306-356

10 Pantothenic Acid 357-373

11 Biotin 374-389

12 Choline 390-422

13 Uses of Dietary Reference Intakes 423-436

14 A Research Agenda 437-442

A Origin and Framework of the Development of Dietary Reference Intakes 443-447

B Acknowledgments 448-450

C Système International d'Unités 451-452

D Search Strategies 453-455

E Methodological Problems Associated with Laboratory Values and Food Composition Data for B Vitamins 456-459

F Dietary Intake Data from the Boston Nutritional Status Survey, 1981–1984 460-465

G Dietary Intake Data from the Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals (CSFII), 1994–1995 466-477

H Dietary Intake Data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III), 1988–1994 478-501

I Daily Intakes of B Vitamins by Canadian Men and Women, 1990, 1993 502-506

J Options for Dealing with Uncertainties in Developing Tolerable Upper Intake Levels 507-511

K Blood Concentrations of Folate and Vitamin B12 from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III), 1988–1994 512-519

L Methylenetetrahydrofolate Reductase 520-522

M Evidence from Animal Studies on the Etiology of Neural Tube Defects 523-526

N Estimation of the Period Covered by Vitamin B12 Stores 527-530

O Biographical Sketches 531-536

P Glossary and Abbreviations 537-540

Index 541-567

Other Life Stage Groups