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2
Proteins and Amino Acids
Protein generally refers to crude protein, which is defined for mixed feedstuffs as the nitrogen content × 6.25. This definition is based on the assumption that, on average, the nitrogen content is 16 g of nitrogen/100 g of protein. Proteins are composed of amino acids, and it is actually the amino acids that are the essential nutrients. Therefore, the dietary provision of amino acids in correct amounts and proportions determines the adequacy of a dietary protein concentrate. Supplemental nonprotein nitrogen, such as urea, has not produced beneficial responses in swine that were fed practical diets (Hays et al., 1957; Kornegay et al., 1965; Wehrbein et al., 1970).
Essential And Nonessential Amino Acids
Although there are 20 primary amino acids that occur in proteins, not all of them are essential dietary components. Some amino acids can be synthesized by using carbon skeletons (derived primarily from glucose and other amino acids) and amino groups derived from other amino acids present in excess of the requirement. Amino acids synthesized in this manner are termed nonessential (or dispensable). Amino acids that cannot be synthesized, or cannot be synthesized at a sufficient rate to permit optimal growth or reproduction, are termed essential (or indispensable). Although amino acids in both categories are needed at the physiologic or metabolic level, normal swine diets contain adequate amounts of nonessential amino acids or of amino groups for their synthesis. This seems to be true even for low-protein diets that are supplemented with crystalline amino acids (Brudevoid and Southern, 1994). Thus, most of the emphasis in swine nutrition is on the essential amino acids.
A few amino acids do not fit neatly into the essential and nonessential classifications. An example is arginine, which is generally classified as an essential amino acid. Swine can synthesize arginine, and arginine synthesis from glutamine has been detected in pig enterocytes prepared within 1 hour of farrowing (Wu and Knabe, 1995). However, synthesis is not adequate to meet nutrient requirements during the early stages of growth (Southern and Baker, 1983). Consequently, the diets of growing swine must contain a source of arginine. However, during postpubertal growth and pregnancy, swine can synthesize arginine at a rate sufficient to meet most or all of their needs (Easter et al., 1974; Easter and Baker, 1976). Synthesis of arginine is probably insufficient to meet the demands of lactation.
Proline is not considered an essential amino acid for swine. Initial research by Ball et al. (1986) suggested that very young pigs (1 to 5 kg) were unable to synthesize proline rapidly enough to meet their requirements, and, as a result, a dietary source of proline must be provided. These conclusions were reached on the basis of changes in the oxidation of an indicator amino acid. However, subsequent research from the same laboratory revealed no differences in growth rate between pigs given a diet with almost no dietary supply of proline and pigs fed a diet with supplemental proline (Murphy, 1992). This finding led the author to conclude that proline is not a dietary essential amino acid for neonatal pigs. Furthermore, Chung and Baker (1993) fed a proline-free diet to 5-kg pigs and also observed no growth response to supplemental proline. There are no reports that other classes of swine (greater than 5 kg) require a dietary source of proline.
Cysteine can be synthesized from methionine, and therefore it is classified as nonessential. However, cysteine and its oxidation product cystine can satisfy approximately 50 percent of the need for total sulfur amino acids (methionine + cystine) (Shelton et al., 1951; Becker et al., 1955; Mitchell et al., 1968; Baker et al., 1969; Roth and Kirchgessner,
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1989; Chung and Baker, 1992a), and in this way can reduce the need for methionine. Methionine cannot be synthesized from cystine, and therefore it is essential. Methionine can meet the total need for sulfur amino acids in the absence of cystine.
Similarly, phenylalanine can meet the total requirement for phenylalanine and tyrosine (aromatic amino acids) because it can be converted to tyrosine. Tyrosine can satisfy at least 50 percent of the total need for these two amino acids (Robbins and Baker, 1977), but it cannot serve as the sole source, because it cannot be converted to phenylalanine.
Glutamine is considered to be a conditionally essential amino acid in some species (Lacey and Wilmore, 1990), because it prevents intestinal atrophy under certain conditions. Wu et al. (1996) recently reported that addition of 1 percent glutamine to a corn—soybean meal diet prevented jejunal atrophy in pigs weaned at 21 days during the first week postweaning and increased feed efficiency during the second week postweaning.
Amino Acids In Diets
Cereal grains, such as corn, sorghum, barley, or wheat, are the primary ingredients of most swine diets and usually provide 30 to 60 percent of the total amino acid requirements. But other sources of protein, such as soybean meal, must be provided to ensure adequate amounts of, and a proper balance among, the essential amino acids. Supplements of crystalline amino acids may also be used to increase intakes of specific amino acids. The protein levels necessary to provide adequate intakes of essential amino acids will depend on the feedstuffs used. Feedstuffs that contain ''high quality" proteins (i.e., they have an amino acid pattern relatively similar to the pig's needs) or mixtures of feedstuffs in which the amino acid pattern in one complements the pattern in another will meet the essential amino acid requirements at lower dietary protein levels than feedstuffs with a less desirable amino acid pattern. This is important if one of the goals is to minimize nitrogen excretion. Another method of reducing dietary protein levels, and thereby reducing nitrogen excretion, is the judicious use of supplements of crystalline amino acids.
The amino acid requirements of growing-finishing swine, expressed in terms of dietary concentration, increase as the energy density of the diet increases. Research data (Chiba et al., 1991a,b) indicate that at higher or lower energy densities than those found in standard grain—soybean meal diets, amino acid requirements (expressed as a percentage of the diet) may need to be adjusted upward or downward, respectively.
The procedures used for amino acid analyses may cause variations in published estimates of amino acid requirements. Determined values for tryptophan and sulfur amino acids in dietary ingredients, in particular, vary considerably. Tryptophan analysis is difficult because of the relatively low concentration in most feedstuffs and because tryptophan is partially destroyed during standard acid hydrolysis. Consequently, special precautions are necessary, such as hydrolysis with barium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, or lithium hydroxide, or protection against oxidation in acid. Methionine and cystine undergo oxidation to multiple derivatives, and controlled oxidation of methionine to methionine sulfone and of cystine to cysteic acid must be carried out with performic acid before acid hydrolysis (Williams, 1994).
Ratios Among Amino Acids (Ideal Protein)
In determining amino acid requirements, a fundamental concept of this publication is that there is an optimal dietary pattern among essential amino acids that corresponds to the needs of the animal. This optimal dietary pattern is often called "ideal protein." The basis for ideal protein has been discussed by several authors, including the Agricultural Research Council (1981), Fuller and Wang (1990), Baker and Chung (1992), Cole and Van Lunen (1994), and Baker (1997).
The concept of an optimal pattern among amino acids has been applied in previous editions of this publication, particularly the ninth edition (National Research Council, 1988), in which the pattern was explicitly listed in a table. However, in the ninth edition the pattern was developed after an examination of the results of experiments to determine amino acid requirements. In the present edition, the pattern was developed primarily from experiments specifically designed for that purpose. Three ideal proteins are used in this publication, one for maintenance, one for protein accretion, and one for milk synthesis. These three patterns, along with a pattern for body tissue protein, are presented in Table 2-1.
The ratios for maintenance were calculated by taking the mean of the maintenance requirements for each amino acid determined at the University of Illinois (Baker et al., 1966a, b; Baker and Allee, 1970) and at the Rowett Research Institute (Fuller et al., 1989) and dividing by the maintenance requirement for lysine. The phenylalanine + tyrosine requirement determined at the University of Illinois was not considered reliable and was not included in the mean. Arginine is not required for maintenance. The value of -200 was set to reflect the fact that arginine synthesis can satisfy all the maintenance needs and some of the needs for protein accretion. The maintenance requirement for histidine has not been determined, and so the maintenance ratio was set equal to the ratio for protein accretion.
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TABLE 2-1 Ideal Ratios of Amino Acids to Lysine for Maintenance, Protein Accretion, Milk Synthesis, and Body Tissue
Amino Acid
Maintenancea
Protein Accretionb
Milk Synthesisc
Body Tissued
Lysine
100
100
100
100
Arginine
-200
48
66
105
Histidine
32
32
40
45
Isoleucine
75
54
55
50
Leucine
70
102
115
109
Methionine
28
27
26
27
Methionine + cystine
123
55
45
45
Phenylalanine
50
60
55
60
Phenylalanine + tyrosine
121
93
112
103
Threonine
151
60
58
58
Tryptophan
26
18
18
10
Valine
67
68
85
69
a Maintenance ratios were calculated based on the data of Baker et al. (1996a,b), Baker and Allee (1970), and Fuller et al. (1989). The negative value for arginine reflects arginine synthesis in excess of the needs for maintenance.
b Accretion ratios were derived by starting with ratios from Fuller et al. (1989) and then adjusting to values that produced blends for maintenance + accretion that were more consistent with recent empirically determined values (Baker and Chung, 1992; Baker et al., 1993; Hahn and Baker, 1995; Baker, 1997).
c Milk protein synthesis ratios were those proposed by Pettigrew (1993) based on a survey of the literature; the value of 73 for valine proposed by Pettigrew was modified to 85.
d Body tissue protein ratios were from a survey of the literature (Pettigrew, 1993).
The ratios for protein accretion were derived by starting with the ratios proposed by Fuller et al. (1989). However, these ratios were adjusted to values that produced blends for maintenance and accretion which were more consistent with recent empirically determined values (for a discussion, see Baker and Chung, 1992; Baker et al., 1993; Hahn and Baker, 1995; Baker, 1997). The ratios for milk production were from the review of Pettigrew (1993) except that the value of 73 for valine was modified to 85 (see Chapter 3). The ratios for body tissue protein were also from the review of Pettigrew (1993). Although it is recognized that the amino acid composition of body protein changes as a pig matures (Kyriazakis et al., 1993), a fixed pattern was used.
Bioavailability of Amino Acids
In most swine diets, a portion of each amino acid that is present is not biologically available to the animal. This is because most proteins are not fully digested and the amino acids are not fully absorbed, and also because not all absorbed amino acids are metabolically available. Diets vary considerably in the proportions of their amino acids that are biologically available. The amino acids in some proteins such as milk products are almost fully bioavailable, whereas those in other proteins such as certain plant seeds are much less so (Southern, 1991; Lewis and Bayley, 1995). Expressing amino acid requirements in terms of bioavailable requirements is, therefore, desirable. However, it means that to formulate swine diets, the bioavailable amino acid content of the ingredients being considered must be known.
The bioavailability of amino acids in the protein of dietary ingredients has been determined for a wide range of protein sources fed to swine (Tanksley and Knabe, 1984; Sauer and Ozimek, 1986; Southern, 1991; Lewis and Bayley, 1995). The primary method to determine bioavailability has been to measure the proportion of a dietary amino acid that has disappeared from the gut when digesta reach the terminal ileum. Values determined in this manner are termed "ileal digestibilities" rather than bioavailabilities because amino acids are sometimes absorbed in a form that cannot be fully used in metabolism. Furthermore, unless a correction is made for endogenous amino acid losses, the complete terminology is "apparent ileal digestibilities." In this publication, minimum endogenous losses are accounted for, and both requirements and ingredient contents are expressed in terms of "true" (or standardized) ileal digestible amino acids. When apparent digestibilities are determined, feedstuffs with low-protein content are undervalued relative to feedstuffs with high protein content because of the relatively greater contribution of endogenous amino acids. True digestibilities correct for this. In addition, because of the way in which ideal protein patterns were determined, these patterns reflect true ileal digestibility rather than apparent ileal digestibility.
In general, ileal digestibility values are similar to values determined by other methods such as growth assays (Green and Kiener, 1989; Kovar et al., 1993; Adeola et al., 1994). For feedstuffs exposed to excess heat treatment, however, ileal digestibilities overestimate bioavailabilities of lysine, threonine, methionine, and tryptophan as determined by growth assays (Batterham, 1992, 1994). Apparent and true
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ileal digestibility coefficients for various feed ingredients are given in Tables 11-5 and 11-6 in Chapter 11.
Amino Acid Isomers
In all cases, the requirements listed in this publication refer to the L isomer, the form in which most amino acids occur in plant and animal proteins. When crystalline amino acid supplements are provided, DL-methionine can replace the L form in meeting the need for methionine (Reifsnyder et al., 1984; Chung and Baker, 1992b), although there is evidence that the D form may be used less effectively than the L form by very young pigs (Kim and Bayley, 1983). Estimates of the biological activity of D-tryptophan vary from 60 to 100 percent of that of L-tryptophan for the growing pig (Baker et al., 1971; Arentson and Zimmerman, 1985; Kirchgessner and Roth, 1985; Schutte et al., 1988). The activity of the D form may depend on the proportion of D- and L-tryptophan in the diet and on whether the crystalline amino acid is added as D-tryptophan or as DL-tryptophan (the racemic mixture). D-Lysine and D-threonine are not used by any of the animal species that have been tested. The values of the D forms of other essential amino acids for the pig are not known.
Commercial feed-grade sources of crystalline amino acids include L-lysine·HCl (98.5 percent pure = 78.8 percent lysine activity), L-threonine (98.5 percent pure), L-tryptophan (98.5 percent pure), DL-methionine (99 percent pure), and DL-methionine hydroxy analog (a liquid that contains 88 percent methionine hydroxy analog). Research has indicated that on a molar basis DL-methionine and DL-methionine hydroxy analog have the same methionine activity for young pigs (Reifsnyder et al., 1984; Chung and Baker, 1992b). In addition, some amino acids can be purchased together in a mixture (e.g., lysine and tryptophan), and others are available in a liquid form (e.g., lysine).
Amino Acid Deficiencies And Excesses
There are few characteristic clinical signs of amino acid deficiencies in swine. The primary sign is usually a reduction in feed intake that is accompanied by increased feed wastage, impaired growth, and general unthriftiness.
Swine can tolerate high intakes of protein with few specific ill effects, except occasional mild diarrhea. However, feeding high levels of protein (e.g., in excess of 25 percent protein to growing-finishing pigs) is wasteful, contributes to environmental pollution, and usually results in reduced weight gain and feed efficiency. A corn—soybean meal diet contains quantities of certain amino acids (e.g., arginine, leucine, phenylalanine + tyrosine) in excess of the levels needed for optimal growth, but these excesses have little effect on swine performance. In contrast, additions of excessive supplements of crystalline amino acids, such as arginine, leucine, and methionine, can reduce feed intake and growth rate (Oestemer et al., 1973; Henry et al., 1976; Southern and Baker, 1982; Hagemeier et al., 1983; Anderson et al., 1984a,b; Edmonds and Baker, 1987a; Edmonds et al., 1987; Brudevoid and Southern, 1994). Large intakes of individual amino acids can lead to a variety of negative syndromes that have been classified as toxicity, antagonism, and imbalance, depending on the nature of the effect. Antagonisms commonly occur among amino acids that are structurally related. An example is the lysine-arginine antagonism in poultry, in which excessive dietary lysine increases the requirement for arginine. In pigs, however, excess lysine does not seem to increase the arginine requirement (Edmonds and Baker, 1987b). An amino acid imbalance may result when diets are supplemented with one or more amino acids other than the limiting amino acid. A reduction in feed intake is common in most of these situations. Swine usually recover rapidly when the offending amino acid is removed from the diet.
Amino Acid Requirements
Starting Pigs
A summary of recent research on the amino acid requirements of starting pigs (3 to 20 kg) is included in Table 2-2 and a summary of the lysine requirements from these tabular data is shown in Figure 2-1. Based on these data, the total lysine requirements were set as: 5 kg, 1.45 percent; 10 kg, 1.25 percent; 15 kg, 1.15 percent; and 20 kg, 1.05
FIGURE 2-1
Lysine requirements of starting, growing, and finishing pigs in research published since 1985. Each block represents an estimated requirement (total lysine basis) plotted against the mean body weight of the pigs in the experiment (final body weight minus initial body weight divided by 2). The line represents an estimate of the lysine requirement (total lysine basis).
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TABLE 2-2 Research Findings on Amino Acid Requirements of Growing Swine Since 1985
Amino Acid and Estimated Requirement (%)a
(g/d)
Weight (kg)
Type of Diet
Response Criteria
Commentsc
References
Lysine
1.27b
–
2–6
Semipurified
Weight gain, feed efficiency, nitrogen retention
Diets contained 0.88 to 1.47%
Leibholz and Parks, 1987
1.40
5.0
5–11
Corn–soybean meal–dried skim milk
Weight gain, feed efficiency, plasma urea
Diets contained 1.10 to 1.70%
Goodband et al., 1988
1.20b
–
5–16
Semipurified
Weight gain, feed efficiency, nitrogen retention
Diets contained 0.70 to 1.30%
Leibholz and Parks, 1987
1.15
7.2
6–10
Corn–peanut meal–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Digestible lysine requirement 1.03%
Martinez and Knabe, 1990
1.10
4.3
6–11
Corn–soybean meal–whey
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Diets contained 1.10 to 1.50%.
Lepine et al., 1991
1.25
–
7–10
Corn–soybean meal–whey
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Diets contained 1.15, 1.25, and 1.35%
Kornegay et al., 1993
1.25
7.4
7–17
Corn–soybean meal–whey
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Diets contained 0.95, 1.10, and 1.25%
Mahan et al., 1993
1.30
11.0
7–25
Corn–soybean meal–whey
Weight gain, feed efficiency, protein accretion
1.30% was superior to 0.70 or 1.00%. Two energy concentrations and two thermal environments
Schenck et al., 1992a,b
1.48
9.1
8–19
–
Weight gain, feed efficiency
1.48% was superior to 1.24%
Danielsen et al., 1989
1.31
13.0
8–20
Wheat–starch–mixed protein supplements
Protein accretion
Boars
Campbell et al., 1988b
1.10
7.7
8–20
Corn–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Diets contained 0.75 to 1.25%
Thaler et al., 1986
0.95
–
8–20
Corn–soybean meal–whey
Weight gain, blood urea nitrogen
Diets contained 0.80 to 1.25%
Weaver et al., 1988
1.06
7.7
8–21
Corn–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency
A supplement of 0.20% lysine improved performance over the basal diet (0.86%)
Hamilton and Veum, 1986
1.49
13.3
8–25
Wheat–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Lysine requirement 1.08 g/MJ of DE
Gatel et al., 1992
1.34
9.7
9–19
Wheat–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Diets contained 1.16 to 1.34%
Gatel and Fékéte, 1989
1.34
14.3
9–26
Wheat–barley–soybean meal–oat groats
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Lysine requirement 0.95 g/MJ of DE
Nam and Aherne, 1994
1.05
–
10–20
Corn–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Diets contained 0.95, 1.05, and 1.15%
Kornegay et al., 1993
0.98
10.0
10–20
Corn–soybean meal
Weight gain, nitrogen gain, lysine gain
Higher estimates if nitrogen or lysine gains are used as the criterion
Gahl et al., 1994
1.07
14.7
18–45
Barley–soybean meal–fishmeal
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Supplemental lysine provided by crystalline lysine and by soybean meal
Fuller et al., 1986
1.20
15.7
20–45
Semipurified
Weight gain, feed efficiency, carcass traits, protein accretion
Boars. Limit feeding (3.0 × maintenance). Ileal digestible lysine requirement 0.76–0.82 g/MJ of DE
Batterham et al., 1990
0.94
12.4
20–45
Semipurified
Weight gain, feed efficiency, carcass traits, protein accretion
Gilts. Limit feeding (3.0 × maintenance). Ileal digestible lysine requirement 0.58–0.65 g/MJ of DE
Batterham et al., 1990
1.08
13.5
20–45
Barley–mixed protein supplements
Weight gain, feed efficiency, protein accretion
Limit feeding (3.0 × maintenance). Ileal digestible lysine requirement 0.60 g/MJ of DE
Bikker et al., 1994
0.99
14.0
20–50
Mixed cereal and protein supplements
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Humid tropical conditions
Kuan et al., 1986
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Amino Acid and Estimated Requirement (%)1
(g/d)
Weight (kg)
Type of Diet
Response Criteria
Commentsc
References
1.04
17.6
20–50
Barley–soybean meal
Lean growth rate
Boars
Giles et al., 1986
0.99
20.0
20–50
Barley–soybean meal and wheat soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Boars. Diets contained 0.70 to 1.40%
Giles et al., 1987
0.76
16.0
20–50
Barley–soybean meal and wheat soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Gilts. Diets contained 0.70 to 1.40%
Giles et al., 1987
1.09
17.9
20–50
Wheat plus mixed protein supplements
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Boars. Lysine requirement 0.75 g/MJ of DE
Campbell et al., 1988a
1.03
16.9
20–50
Wheat plus mixed protein supplements
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Gilts. Lysine requirement 0.71 g/MJ of DE
Campbell et al., 1988a
1.02
19.0
20–50
Corn–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency, plasma urea
Barrows and gilts. Lysine requirement 3.0 g/Mcal of DE
Chiba et al., 1991a
1.02
23.0
20–50
Corn–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency, protein accretion rate, nitrogen retention
Barrows. Lysine requirement 3.0 g/Mcal of DE
Lawrence et al., 1994
1.02
22.0
20–60
Corn–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency, protein accretion rate
Slightly higher requirements for pigs treated with porcine somatotropin
Krick et al., 1993
0.89
17.0
21–50
Corn–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency
A supplement of 0.20% lysine improved performance over the basal diet (0.69%)
Hamilton and Veum, 1986
0.86
17.2
21–50
Corn–peanut meal–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Digestible lysine requirement 0.71%
Martinez and Knabe, 1990
0.95
19.5
22–52
Sorghum–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency, carcass traits
Barrows and gilts
Owen et al., 1994
0.97
17.6
23–57
Barley–wheat–soybean meal–canola
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Diets contained 0.72 to 0.97%
Bell et al., 1988
1.07
17.4
25–55
Barley–soybean meal–fishmeal
Weight gain, feed efficiency, carcass traits
Limit feeding. Average of boars, barrows, and gilts
Yen et al., 1986a
1.22
21.5
25–95
Wheat–barley–fishmeal–soybean meal
Weight gain, carcass traits
Boars and gilts. Limit feeding. Improved strain
McPhee et al., 1991
1.04
–
26–30
Corn–soybean meal
Weight gain, plasma urea, nitrogen retention
Barrows
Coma et al., 1995a
1.03
17.5
27–35
Corn–soybean meal
Weight gain, plasma urea,
Barrows. Diets contained 0.75 to 1.35%
Coma et al., 1995b
0.65
–
30–40
Corn plus amino acid mix
Phenylalanine oxidation
Boars
Lin et al., 1986a
0.85
–
32–36
Corn–soybean meal
Plasma urea
Barrows and gilts
Coma et al., 1995a
1.13
21.2
33–55
Barley–wheat–soybean meal–fishmeal
Weight gain, feed efficiency, carcass traits, nitrogen retention
Boars. Lysine requirement 0.80 g/MJ of DE
Rao and McCracken, 1990
0.96
22.0
34–72
Corn–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency, carcass traits, protein accretion rate
Digestible lysine requirement 18 g/d
Friesen et al., 1994a
0.86
19.9
40–85
Mixed cereal and protein supplements
Weight gain, feed efficiency, carcass traits
Humid tropical conditions
Kuan et al., 1986
0.65
21.1
42–101
Wheat–peanut meal–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency, carcass traits
0.65% was superior to 0.55%
Henry et al., 1992a
0.76
–
44–49
Corn–soybean meal
Plasma urea
Barrows and gilts
Coma et al., 1995a
1.17
25.0
44–63
Barley–wheat–wheat gluten–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Barrows. Response up the highest lysine concentration fed
Susenbeth et al., 1994
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Amino Acid and Estimated Requirement (%)a
(g/d)
Weight (kg)
Type of Diet
Response Criteria
Commentsc
References
0.90
26.5
44–104
Corn–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency, carcass traits, protein accretion rate
0.90% was superior to 0.70% for medium and high lean growth barrows and gilts
Friesen et al., 1994b
0.60
17.4
47–103
Corn–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency, carcass traits
Barrows
Cromwell et al., 1993
0.87
22.3
47–103
Corn–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency, carcass traits
Gilts
Cromwell et al., 1993
0.70
18.6
49–100
Wheat–soybean meal–peanut meal
Muscle gain
Limit feeding. Barrows
Bourdon and Henry, 1988
0.80
20.0
49–100
Wheat–soybean meal–peanut meal
Muscle gain
Limit feeding. Gilts
Bourdon and Henry, 1988
0.83
18.6
50–85
Barley–soybean meal
Lean growth rate
Boars
Giles et al., 1986
0.82
20.9
50–90
Barley–soybean meal–fishmeal
Weight gain, feed efficiency, carcass traits
Limit feeding. Average of boars barrows, and gilts
Yen et al., 1986b
0.73
16.2
50–90
Wheat plus mixed protein supplements
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Boars. Lysine requirement 0.51 g/MJ of DE
Campbell et al., 1988a
0.63
14.1
50–90
Wheat plus mixed protein supplements
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Gilts. Lysine requirement 0.44 g/MJ of DE
Campbell et al., 1988a
0.70
19.3
50–95
Corn–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency
A supplement of 0.20% lysine improved performance over the basal diet (0.50%)
Hamilton and Veum, 1986
0.68
23.8
50–95
Corn–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency, plasma urea, carcass traits
Barrows. Digestible lysine requirement 0.58%
Hahn et al., 1995
0.75
21.0
50–95
Corn–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency, plasma urea, carcass traits
Gilts. Digestible lysine requirement 0.64%
Hahn et al., 1995
0.80
22.4
52–78
Sorghum–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency, carcass traits
Barrows and gilts
Owen et al., 1994
1.13
27.9
55–88
Barley–wheat–soybean meal–fishmeal
Weight gain, feed efficiency, carcass traits, nitrogen retention
Boars. Lysine requirement 0.80 g/MJ of DE
Rao and McCracken, 1990
0.80
26.5
59–105
Corn–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency, carcass traits, protein accretion
No response to levels > 0.80%
Johnston et al., 1993
0.60
16.7
62–108
Corn–sesame meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency, plasma urea, carcass traits
Diets contained 0.60 to 1.40%
Goodband et al., 1989
0.80
25.5
63–99
Corn plus mixed protein supplements
Weight gain, feed efficiency, carcass traits, nitrogen retention
Lysine concentrations greater than 0.80% reduced growth performance
Hansen et al., 1994
0.79
22.0
63–100
Barley–wheat–wheat gluten–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Barrows
Susenbeth et al., 1994
0.72
–
70–74
Corn–soybean meal
Plasma urea
Barrows and gilts
Coma et al., 1995a
0.70
22.7
78–109
Sorghum–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency, carcass traits
Barrows and gilts
Owen et al., 1994
0.58
22.9
90–110
Corn–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency, plasma urea, carcass traits
Barrows. Digestible lysine requirement 0.49%
Hahn et al., 1995
0.61
20.4
90–110
Corn–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency, plasma urea, carcass traits
Gilts. Digestible lysine requirement 0.52%
Hahn et al., 1995
0.65
22.7
93–104
Corn–soybean meal
Weight gain, plasma urea
Barrows. Diets contained 0.45 to 1.05%
Coma et al., 1995b
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Amino Acid and Estimated Requirement (%)a
(g/d)
Weight (kg)
Type of Diet
Response Criteria
Commentsc
References
Tryptophan
0.23
0.7
5–10
Semipurified
Weight gain, feed efficiency
0.14% was inadequate; 0.23% was adequate
Sève et al., 1991
0.19
1.0
6–16
Corn–fishmeal–corn gluten meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Apparent ileal digestible requirement 0.15%
Burgoon et al., 1992
0.16
1.2
6–22
Corn–sunflower meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency, serum urea
Diets contained 0.10 to 0.22%
Borg et al., 1987
0.16
1.8
10–20
Corn and mixed protein supplements
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Apparent ileal digestible requirement 0.14%
Han et al., 1993
0.23
2.3
10–35
Corn and mixed protein supplements
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Diets contained 0.13 to 0.25%
Schutte et al., 1988
0.16
2.3
15–40
Semipurified
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Diets contained 0.11 to 0.18%
Henry et al., 1986
0.18
2.8
17–38
Corn–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Improved response with addition of 0.04% tryptophan to a diet containing 0.14%
Russell et al., 1986
0.14
1.9
20–45
Sorghum–meat and bone meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency, carcass traits
Diets contained 0.11 to 0.22%
Batterham and Watson, 1985
0.13
2.2
22–50
Corn–fishmeal–corn gluten meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Apparent ileal digestible requirement 0.10%
Burgoon et al., 1992
0.17
3.2
25–60
Mixed cereals and protein supplements
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Diets contained 0.13 to 0.17%
Kiener et al., 1988
0.13
–
30–45
Corn–gelatin
Phenylalanine oxidation
Boars
Lin et al., 1986b
0.17
4.1
35–105
Mixed cereals and protein supplements
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Apparent ileal digestible requirement 0.135%
Lenis et al., 1990
0.13
3.5
44–99
Corn–soybean meal–corn gluten meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Improved response with addition of 0.04% tryptophan to a diet containing 0.09%
Henry et al., 1992b
0.09
2.8
55–97
Corn–fishmeal–corn gluten meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Apparent ileal digestible requirement 0.06%
Burgoon et al., 1992
0.17b
4.3
60–105
Corn–peas
Weight gain, feed efficiency, carcass traits
Limit feeding. Small reductions in tryptophan had little effect
Möhn and Susenbeth, 1994
Threonine
0.66
1.7
2–5
Semipurified
Weight gain, feed efficiency, N retention
Threonine may have been highly bioavailable
Leibholz, 1988
0.70
3.5
5–15
Sorghum–oat groats–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency, plasma amino acids, plasma urea
Diets contained 0.53 to 0.83%
Lewis and Peo, 1986
0.54
3.8
5–20
Wheat–peanut meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency, N retention
Diets contained 0.49 to 0.77%
Leibholz, 1988
0.68
4.0
6–16
Sorghum–peanut meal–soybean meal–whey
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Apparent ileal digestible requirement 0.52%
Saldana et al., 1994
0.63
5.7
8–21
Corn–sunflower meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency, serum urea
Diets contained 0.50 to 0.78%
Borg et al., 1987
0.75
7.1
10–25
Wheat–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Diets contained 0.50 to 0.89%
Gatel and Fékéte, 1989
0.60
9.4
17–38
Corn–soybean meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Improved response with addition of 0.10% threonine to a diet containing 0.50%
Russell et al., 1986
0.70
8.5
17–50
Corn–hominy feed–meat meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Apparent ileal digestible requirement 0.44%
Conway et al., 1990
0.73
9.8
20–40
Mixed cereals and protein supplements
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Apparent ileal digestible requirement 0.59%
Schutte et al., 1990
0.57
14.1
35–105
Mixed cereals and protein supplements
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Apparent ileal digestible requirement 0.42%
Lenis et al., 1990
0.55
15.0
45–105
Mixed cereals and soy flour
Weight gain, feed efficiency, carcass traits
Apparent ileal digestible requirement 0.42%
Lenis and van Diepen, 1990
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Amino Acid and Estimated Requirement (%)a
(g/d)
Weight (kg)
Type of Diet
Response Criteria
Commentsc
References
0.41
12.0
58–96
Sorghum–crystalline amino acids
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Apparent ileal digestible requirement 0.28%
Saldana et al., 1994
0.36
10.4
59–102
Corn–wheat–corn gluten meal–amino acids
Weight gain, feed efficiency, plasma urea, carcass traits
Higher requirement to minimize plasma urea and maximize carcass traits
Zimmerman, 1987
Methionine + cystine
0.58
3.2
5–10
Semipurified
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Bioavailable methionine requirement 0.255%
Chung and Baker, 1992c
0.82
3.4
5–13
Corn–soybean meal–porcine plasma
Weight gain, feed efficiency, plasma urea
Methionine requirement 0.41% in the presence of adequate cystine
Owen et al., 1995
0.55
3.6
6–18
Corn–soybean meal–sugar
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Addition of 0.17% methionine to a diet containing 0.55% did not increase performance
Lovett et al., 1986
0.58
5.7
10–20
Semipurified
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Bioavailable methionine requirement 0.255%
Chung and Baker, 1992c
0.50
12.8
25–85
Barley–lentils
Weight gain, feed efficiency, carcass traits
Diets contained 0.40, 0.50, or 0.60%
Castell and Cliplef, 1990
0.57
9.4
30–60
Mixed cereals and protein supplements
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Limit feeding
Roth and Kirchgessner, 1987
0.53
12.9
35–105
Mixed cereals and protein supplements
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Apparent ileal digestible requirement 0.42%
Lenis et al., 1990
0.45
12.0
50–80
Corn–soybean meal–feather meal
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Bioavailable methionine + cystine requirement 0.40%
Chung et al., 1989
0.47
10.7
60–90
Mixed cereals and protein supplements
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Limit feeding
Roth and Kirchgessner, 1987
Valine
0.45
11.3
70
Semipurified
Weight gain, feed efficiency, plasma urea, urea excretion
Apparent ileal digestible requirement = 0.38%
Lewis and Nishimura, 1995
Histidine
0.36
2.8
10
Semipurified
Weight gain, feed efficiency
Bioavailable requirement 0.31%
Izquierdo et al., 1988
NOTE: Dashes (–) indicate that no information was available.
aValues represent total amino acids on a percentage of the diet as-fed basis.
bValues represent total amino acids on a percentage of the diet dry matter basis.
c1 MJ = 239 kcal.
percent. These estimates are also shown in Figure 2-1. These requirements can be described by the equation:
where Requirement = lysine requirement (percent of the air-dry diet) and BW = body weight (kg). Requirements for other amino acids were calculated from lysine using the ratios established for maintenance and protein accretion on a true ileal digestible basis (Table 2-1), even though there are few empirical data to support these ratios. In general, these requirements for starting pigs are slightly higher than those listed in the previous edition of this publication.
Growing-Finishing Pigs
Amino acid requirements of growing-finishing pigs are influenced by their genetic capacity to deposit body protein. The amino acid requirements were calculated by the growth model described in Chapter 3. A summary of recent empirical data on the lysine, tryptophan, threonine, methionine + cystine, valine, and histidine requirements is included in Table 2-2. Some of the lysine estimates in this table were used to validate the model. Figure 2-1 shows estimates of the lysine requirements (total lysine, percentage basis) from these studies along with an estimate of the lysine requirement at various body weights. In general, these lysine requirements are higher than the estimates listed in the previous edition of this publication. The
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increase in the lysine requirements is attributed to several factors, among which are improved genetics, health, and other environmental conditions in contemporary pigs.
Sows
Amino acid requirements of gestating sows are influenced by their requirements for maintenance, protein deposition in maternal proteinaceous tissues, and protein deposition in the products of conception. Amino acid requirements of lactating sows are affected by their needs for maintenance and synthesis of milk protein, adjusted for amino acids that become available from maternal body protein if sows lose weight. Amino acid requirements for sows during gestation and lactation were also developed by computer modeling, as described in Chapter 3. A summary of recent references on the lysine requirements of gestating and lactating sows, some of which were used to validate the models, is shown in Table 2-3.
In general, the lysine requirements of pregnant sows are slightly higher, and the lysine requirements of lactating sows are considerably higher, than those listed in the previous edition of this publication. The increased estimates for lactation are supported by the results from a number of studies published since the last edition (Cera et al., 1990; Coffey, 1990; Stahly et al., 1990, 1992; Monegue et al., 1993; Sauber et al., 1994; Knabe et al., 1996). These studies have shown that lactating sows nursing large litters produce more milk (as reflected by increased weaning weights of nursing pigs) and lose less maternal body weight when fed 0.75 to 0.90% dietary lysine (45 to 55 g/day) than when fed the lysine levels cited in the previous edition (0.60% lysine, 35 g/day).
Boars
There has been little research to determine the amino acid requirements for reproduction in the boar (for a review, see Kemp and Den Hartog, 1989). Inadequate protein intake during development delays sexual maturity and reduces sperm output per ejaculation, but recovery from mild undernutrition (a 12 percent crude protein diet) is fairly rapid (Uzu, 1979).
Sexually active board do not seem to have any unusual amino acid requirements. Early experiments (most of them in Eastern Europe) concerning the effects of lysine and methionine supplements on the reproductive functions of boars indicated that sexually active boars may have a relatively high requirement for sulfur amino acids and perhaps lysine (Moskutelo, 1970; Netesa and Pashkevich, 1971; Fufaev and Pashkevich, 1972; Tommé and Loskutnikov, 1972; Hühn et al., 1973, 1974; Poppe et al., 1974a,b,c; Pashkevich, 1974, 1976; Zaripova and Shakirov, 1978). Positive responses to methionine and lysine supplements
TABLE 2-3 Lysine Requirements of Gestating and Lactating Sowsa
Azain, M. J., T. Tomkins, and J. S. Sowinski. 1994. Effect of a protein and energy enriched lactation diet in sow and litter performance: Interaction with supplemental milk replacer. J. Anim. Sci. 72(Suppl. 2):65 (Abstr.).
Cera, K. R., L. G. Sterling, and D. Warrington. 1990. Effect of lysine level in lactating diets on sow performance over successive reproduction cycles. J. Anim. Sci. 68(Suppl. 1):365 (Abstr.).
Coffey, M. T. 1990. Effect of dietary lysine concentration during lactation on reproductive performance of sows. J. Anim. Sci. 68(Suppl. 1):368 (Abstr.).
Coma, J., D. R. Zimmerman, and D. Carrion. 1996. Lysine requirement of the lactating sow determined by using plasma urea nitrogen as a rapid response criterion. J. Anim. Sci. 74:1056–1062.
Dourmad, J. Y., M. Etienne, and J. Noblet. 1991. Lysine and other amino acid requirements for lactating sows. J. Anim. Sci. 69(Suppl. 1):366 (Abstr.).
Dunn, J. M., and V. C. Speer. 1988. Protein requirement of pregnant gilts. J. Anim. Sci. 66(Suppl. 1):145 (Abstr.).
Dunn, J. M., and V. C. Speer. 1989. Minimum nitrogen requirement of pregnant swine. J. Anim. Sci. 68(Suppl. 1):119 (Abstr.).
Etienne, M., J. Noblet, J. Y. Dourmad, and H. Fortune. 1989. Study of the lysine requirement of sows during lactation. Journ. Rech. Porcine Fr. 21:101–107.
Fernandes, L. C. O., J. H. Britt, and M. T. Coffey. 1990. Effect of frequency of feeding and lysine intake on production and reproduction of primiparous sows. J. Anim. Sci. 68(Suppl. 1):367 (Abstr.).
Grandhi, R. R. 1986. Effect of energy and lysine levels on reproductive performance of gilts. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 66:1177(Abstr.).
Grandhi, R. R. 1988. Effect of nutritional flushing, supplemental fat and supplemental lysine from puberty to breeding and during early gestation on reproductive performance of gilts. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 68:941–951.
Grandhi, R. R. 1992. Effect of feeding supplemental fat or lysine during the postweaning period on the reproductive performance of sows with low or high lactation body weight and fat losses. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 72:679–690.
Grandhi, R. R. 1994. Apparent absorption and retention of nutrients during the postweaning period in sows fed supplemental fat or lysine. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 74:123–128.
Johnston, L. J., J. E. Pettigrew, and J. W. Rust. 1993. Response of maternal-line sows to dietary protein concentration during lactation. J. Anim. Sci. 71:2151–2156.
Jones, D. B., and T. S. Stahly. 1995. Impact of amino acid nutrition during lactation on subsequent reproductive function of sows. J. Anim. Sci. 73(Suppl. 1):85 (Abstr.).
Kaji, Y., Y. Hatori, S. Furuya, and T. Ishibashi. 1992a. Lysine requirements of gilts during mid and late pregnancy and mid lactating periods. Anim. Sci. Technol. 63:955–963.
Kaji, Y., Y. Hatori, S. Furuya, and T. Ishibashi. 1992b. Lysine requirements of multiparous sows during mid and late pregnancy and mid lactating periods. Anim. Sci. Technol. 63:1175–1181.
King, R. H. 1991. Response of pregnant gilts to dietary protein as determined by nitrogen retention. J. Anim. Sci. 69(Suppl. 1):361 (Abstr.).
King, R. H., M. S. Toner, H. Dove, C. S. Atwood, and W. G. Brown. 1993. The response of first-litter sows to dietary protein level during lactation. J. Anim. Sci. 71:2457–2463.
Knabe, D. A., J. H. Brendemuhl, L. I. Chiba, and C. R. Dove. 1996. Supplemental lysine for sows nursing large litters. J. Anim. Sci. 74:1635–1640.
Laurin, J. L., R. D. Goodband, J. L. Nelssen, R. D. Richard, and D. R. Keesecker. 1991. Dietary lysine during lactation affects sow and litter performance. J. Anim. Sci. 69(Suppl. 1):109 (Abstr.).
Laurin, J. L., J. L. Nelssen, R. D. Goodband, and M. D. Tokach. 1993. The interrelationships between dietary lysine and litter size on sow and litter performance. J. Anim. Sci. 71(Suppl. 1):65 (Abstr.).
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Monegue, H. J., G. L. Cromwell, R. D. Coffey, S. D. Carter, and M. Cervantes. 1993. Elevated dietary lysine levels for sows nursing large litters. J. Anim. Sci. 71(Suppl. 1):67 (Abstr.).
NCR-89. 1995. Effect of room temperature and dietary amino acid concentration on performance of lactating sows. J. Anim. Sci. 73(Suppl. 1):250 (Abstr.).
Pinheiro, J. W., H. S. Rostagno, R. Sant'Anna, J. Pereira, and P. M. A. Costa. 1986. Nutritional lysine requirement for lactating sows. Rev. Soc. Bras. Zootec. 15:234–240.
Sauber, T. E., T. S. Stahly, R. C. Ewan, and N. H. Williams. 1994. Interactive effects of sow genotype and dietary amino acid intake on lactational performance of sows nursing large litters. J. Anim. Sci. 72(Suppl. 2):66 (Abstr.).
Speer, V. C. 1990. Partitioning nitrogen and amino acids for pregnancy and lactation in swine: A review. J. Anim. Sci. 68:553–561.
Stahly, T. S., G. L. Cromwell, and H. J. Monegue. 1990. Lactational responses of sows nursing large litters to dietary lysine levels. J. Anim. Sci. 68(Suppl. 1):369 (Abstr.).
Stahly, T. S., G. L. Cromwell, and H. J. Monegue. 1992. Milk yield responses of sows nursing large litters. J. Anim. Sci. 70(Suppl. 1):238 (Abstr.).
Sterling, L. G., and K. R. Cera. 1990. The effect of dietary lysine level during lactation on milk composition and litter gain efficiency over successive reproduction cycles. J. Anim. Sci. 68(Suppl. 1):365 (Abstr.).
Thaler, R. C., R. L. Woerman, and D. B. Britzman. 1992. Effect of lysine level in lactation diets on sow performance and milk composition. J. Anim. Sci. 70(Suppl. 1):238 (Abstr.).
Tokach, M. D., R. D. Goodband, J. L. Nelssen, J. L. Laurin, and J. A. Hansen. 1992. The effects of an ideal protein lactation diet on sow and litter performance. J. Anim. Sci. 70(Suppl. 1):69 (Abstr.).
Tokach, M. D., J. E. Pettigrew, B. A. Crooker, G. D. Dial, and A. F. Sower. 1992. Quantitative influence of lysine and energy intake on yield of milk components in the primiparous sow. J. Anim. Sci. 70:1864–1872.
Touchette, K. J., G. L. Allee, M. D. Newcomb, K. M. Halpin, and R. D. Boyd. 1996. Lysine requirement of the lactating primiparous sow. J. Anim. Sci. 74 (Suppl. 1):63 (Abstr.).
Weeden, T. L., J. L. Nelssen, R. C. Thaler, G. E. Fitzner, and R. D. Goodband. 1994. Effect of dietary protein and supplemental soybean oil fed during lactation on sow and litter performance through two parities. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 45:211–226.
Wilson, M. E., H. Stein, N. L. Trottier, D. D. Hall, R. L. Moser, D. E. Orr, and R. A. Easter. 1996. Effect of lysine intake on reproductive performance in first parity sows. J. Anim. Sci. 74 (Suppl. 1): 63 (Abstr.).
a Papers published from 1985 to 1996 and abstracts published in the Journal of Animal Science from 1990 to 1996.
above the NRC (1988) requirements have also been reported by Kim and Moon (1990a,b). In other experiments, however, methionine and lysine supplements have not been beneficial (Ju et al., 1985; Van de Kerk and Willems, 1985).
Inadequate protein intakes reduce sperm concentration and total sperm count per ejaculate (Yen and Yu, 1985) as well as libido and semen volume (Louis et al., 1994a). Although minimum protein and amino acid requirements have not been established, a low-protein corn-soybean meal diet (10.6 percent protein, 0.44 percent lysine) fed to provide 7.7 g/day of total lysine was inadequate (Louis et al., 1974b). In this research, a corn-soybean meal diet (15.3 percent protein, 0.83 percent lysine) that provided 360 g/day of protein and 18.1 g/day of total lysine maintained good libido and semen characteristics. Yen and Yu (1985) reported that 280 g/day of protein and 11.6 g/day of total lysine were adequate for boars. Meding and Nielsen (1977) found that there was no increase in sperm production when dietary protein concentration was increased from 15.4 to 18.4 percent. Similarly, Kemp et al. (1988) reported that a diet containing 22.2 percent protein (1.20 percent lysine) did not increase sperm production and semen quality relative to a diet containing 14.5 percent protein (0.68 percent lysine). Because feed intake of adult boars is usually limited to avoid excess weight gain, the daily intakes of amino acids are more important than the dietary amino acid concentrations.
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
amino acids
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