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6
Water
Although water is an important nutrient, there has been surprisingly little research conducted on water requirements of swine since the publication of the previous edition of Nutrient Requirements of Swine (National Research Council, 1988). In the future, greater emphasis will need to be placed on the water requirements of swine, because in some areas of the world, water is becoming an increasingly scarce commodity, whereas in others, excessive water usage has led to problems with slurry disposal (Brooks, 1994).
Functions Of Water
Water fulfills a number of physiological functions necessary for life (Roubicek, 1969). It is a major structural element giving form to the body through cell turgidity, and it plays a crucial role in temperature regulation. The high specific heat of water makes it indispensable for dispersing the surplus heat produced during various metabolic processes. About 580 calories of heat are released when 1 g of water changes from liquid to vapor (Thulin and Brumm, 1991). Water is important in the movement of nutrients to the cells of body tissues and for the removal of waste products from these cells. The high dielectric constant of water gives it the ability to dissolve a wide variety of substances and transport these throughout the body via the circulatory system. In addition, water plays a role in virtually every chemical reaction that takes place in the body. The oxidation of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins all result in the formation of water. The subsequent metabolism of these compounds to yield their energy is achieved through a series of complex reactions that include hydration and hydrolysis. Finally, water is important in the lubrication of joints (i.e., synovial fluid) and in providing protective cushioning for the nervous system (i.e., cerebral-spinal fluid).
The water content of a pig varies with its age. Water accounts for as much as 82 percent of the empty body weight (whole body weight less gastrointestinal tract contents) in a 1.5-kg neonatal pig and declines to 53 percent in a 90-kg market hog (Shields et al., 1983). This change with age is principally because the fat content of the pig increases with age and adipose tissue is considerably lower in its water content than is muscle (Georgievskii, 1982).
Water Turnover
Swine obtain water from three sources: (1) water that is consumed; (2) water that is a component of feedstuffs (typically about 10 to 12 percent of air-dry feed); and (3) water that originates from the breakdown of carbohydrate, fat, and protein (metabolic water). The oxidation of 1 kg of fat, carbohydrate, or protein produces 1,190, 560, or 450 g of water, respectively (National Research Council, 1981). According to Yang et al. (1984), every 1 kg of air-dry feed consumed will produce between 0.38 and 0.48 kg (or L) of metabolic water.
Water is lost from the body by four routes: (1) the lungs (respiration), (2) the skin (evaporation), (3) the intestines (defecation), and (4) the kidneys (urination). Moisture is continually lost from the respiratory tract during the normal process of breathing. Incoming air is both warmed and moistened as it passes over the lining of the respiratory tract and is expired at approximately 90 percent saturation (Roubicek, 1969). For pigs in a thermoneutral environment (20°C), respiratory water loss has been estimated to be 0.29 and 0.58 L for pigs of 20 and 60 kg body weight (Holmes and Mount, 1967). The degree of loss is affected by both temperature and relative humidity; water loss increases with increased temperature and decreases with increased humidity.
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Sweating and insensible water loss from the skin are not major sources of water loss in swine because the sweat glands are largely dormant. Within the thermoneutral zone, the rate of moisture loss has been estimated to be between 12 and 16 g/m2 (Morrison et al., 1967). Increasing the environmental temperature from -5 to 30°C increased water loss from 7 to 32 g/m2 (Ingram, 1964). However, increased relative humidity had no effect on this loss (Morrison et al., 1967).
Significant quantities of water are lost in the feces. The amount of manure a pig produces per day in confinement ranges from 8 to 9 percent of its body weight, with a water content varying from 62 to 79 percent (Brooks and Carpenter, 1993). Water loss through the gut will vary with the nature of the diet. In general, the greater the proportion of undigested material, the greater the water loss (Maynard et al., 1979). Water loss increases with the level of fiber intake (Cooper and Tyler, 1959) and with intake of feeds that have laxative properties. Water loss via the feces is also increased in the case of diarrhea (Thulin and Brumm, 1991).
Urination is the major route of water excretion in swine, although the amount of water excreted in the urine is highly variable. The kidneys regulate the volume and composition of body fluids by excreting more or less water, depending on water intake and excretion through other mechanisms. Water excretion is increased when pigs are fed diets that contain greater amounts of minerals and protein. The larger the amount of protein in the diet, the greater the water loss, and thus the greater the water requirement (Wahlstrom et al., 1970). Similarly, increased intake of salt results in increases in water intake and a concomitant increase in urinary excretion (Sinclair, 1939).
Water Requirements
Many factors, including environmental ones, govern the water requirements of swine (National Research Council, 1981). The amount of water in a pig's body at any given age is relatively constant. Therefore, pigs must consume sufficient water on a daily basis to balance the amount of water lost. Any factor known to increase water excretion will increase water requirements. The minimum requirement for water is the amount needed to balance water losses, produce milk, and form new tissue during growth or pregnancy.
In determining water requirements, care must be taken to distinguish between requirements and consumption. True water usage by pigs is usually overestimated because wastage is generally not taken into account. Based on water turnover rates measured using tritiated water, water requirements of pigs under confined and normal dry feeding conditions were estimated to be approximately 120 and 80 mL/kg of body weight for growing (30 to 40 kg) and non-lactating adult pigs (157 kg), respectively (Yang et al., 1981). However, because of the difficulty in making these types of measurements, water consumption is typically used to estimate water requirement.
Suckling Pigs
A common assumption is that suckling pigs do not drink water and can completely satisfy their water requirements by drinking milk, because milk contains 80 percent water. However, suckling pigs, in fact, drink water within 1 or 2 days of birth (Aumaitre, 1964). In addition, because milk is a high-protein, high-mineral food, its consumption can cause increased urinary excretion, which might actually lead to a water deficit (Lloyd et al., 1978). As a consequence, research interest in the water requirements of suckling pigs has increased recently.
Fraser et al. (1988) measured water use by 51 suckling litters during the first 4 days after farrowing. The use varied greatly among litters, ranging from 0 to 200 mL/day, with an average daily consumption per pig of 46 mL. This level of intake is considerably higher than that reported in earlier work, in which average daily water intake per pig was closer to 10 mL. Fraser et al. (1993) speculated that the increased consumption levels recorded recently may reflect an increased emphasis on temperature control in farrowing rooms and that the higher temperatures currently used may lead to an increase in moisture loss from the pig. Their data showed almost a fourfold increase in water consumption when suckling pigs were housed in rooms at 28°C than when housed at 20°C.
Fraser et al. (1988) suggested that providing a supplemental water supply may help to reduce preweaning mortality. They speculated that undernourished pigs, especially those housed in warm environments, may be prone to dehydration during the first few days after farrowing and that at least some pigs have the developmental maturity to compensate by drinking water. Exposed water surfaces (e.g., bowls or cups) are superior to nipple drinkers for this purpose (Phillips and Fraser, 1990, 1991).
After the first week of life, the principal concern regarding the water consumption of suckling pigs is the role it plays in stimulating creep feed consumption. Although the consumption of creep feed by pigs is usually low during the first 3 weeks, subsequent feed intake is less if water is not provided (Friend and Cunningham, 1966). Pig health is a factor that affects water intake. Pigs with diarrhea consumed 15 percent less water than healthy pigs (Baranyiova and Holub, 1993).
Weanling Pigs
Gill et al. (1986) measured the water intake of weaned pigs from 3 to 6 weeks of age. Daily water intake during
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the first, second, and third week after weaning averaged 0.49, 0.89, and 1.46 L per pig. The relationship between feed intake and water consumption was described by Brooks et al. (1984) using the following equation.
McLeese et al. (1992) observed two distinct patterns of water intake. During the first phase, lasting about 5 days after weaning, water intake fluctuated independently of apparent physiological need and did not seem to be related to growth, feed intake, or the severity of diarrhea. In the second period, water intake followed a consistent pattern that paralleled growth and feed intake. The authors speculated that during the first few days after weaning, water consumption might be high so that the pigs could obtain a sense of satiety in the absence of feed intake. Brooks et al. (1984) reported a diurnal pattern to water intake for weaned pigs housed under conditions of constant light, with a higher consumption from 0830 to 1700 hours than from 0700 to 0830 hours.
Nienaber and Hahn (1984) studied the effects of water flow restriction on the performance of weanling pigs. Their results showed little effect on growth when flow rates were varied between 0.1 and 1.1 L/minute. However, water use was significantly higher with a more rapid flow rate, which was attributed to increased wastage of water. Similarly, water use increased when water nipples were tilted up (at 45°) versus down (at 45°) in position (Carlson and Peo, 1982). Weanling pigs in pens with water nipples placed in the down position gained 6.5 percent faster, were 7 percent more efficient in feed conversion, and used 63 percent less water than pigs in pens with water nipples pointing up. There was no advantage in using drip versus non-drip waterers (Ogunbameru et al., 1991).
Growing-Finishing Pigs
For growing-finishing pigs, free access to water located near feed dispensers is advisable, and such access is normally provided for dry feeding systems. The rate (grams per hour) of digesta or water emptying from the stomach increases as the water intake increases (Low et al., 1985). This process regulates the dry matter content of the gastric digesta, particularly during the first hour after feeding.
Factors such as feed intake, ingredients contained in the diet, ambient temperature and humidity, state of health, and stress level affect water requirements. Water consumption generally has a positive relationship with feed intake and body weight (Evvard, 1929). The minimum requirement for pigs between 20 and 90 kg body weight is approximately 2 kg of water for each kg of feed. The voluntary water intake of growing pigs allowed to consume feed ad libitum is approximately 2.5 kg of water for each kg of feed while pigs receiving restricted amounts of feed have been reported to consume 3.7 kg of water per kg of feed (Cumby, 1986). The difference between ad libitum and restricted fed pigs might be due to the tendency of pigs to fill themselves with water if their appetite is not satisfied by their feed allowance.
Braude et al. (1957) gave 79 pigs unrestricted dry feed up to 3 kg/pig daily and free access to water. From 10 to 22 weeks of age, the water-to-feed ratio averaged 2.56:1. From 16 to 18 weeks of age, the maximum average daily intakes of water and feed were 7.0 and 2.7 kg/pig, respectively.
Olsson and Andersson (1985), using nose-operated drinking devices, concluded that water consumption at feeding for growing-finishing pigs has a distinct periodicity, with a peak at the beginning and end of the feeding period. Water consumption between feeding periods peaked 2 hours after the morning feeding and 1 hour after the afternoon feeding. These results support the conclusions of Yang et al. (1984) that growing pigs have a tendency, when feed intake is restricted, to increase the total water ingested, possibly because of a desire for abdominal fill. In general, their results suggest that if feed access was restricted, water for abdominal fill was taken during the afternoon.
Barber et al. (1988) studied the effect of water delivery rate and number of drinking nipples on the water use of growing pigs. A high (900 mL/minute) delivery rate increased water use (3.8 L/day) compared with a low (300 mL/minute) delivery rate (1.9 L/day). However, pig performance was not affected. Increasing the number of nipples per pen (eight pigs per pen) from one to two had no effect on either water use or pig performance.
Mount et al. (1971) reported little difference in water consumption by growing pigs kept at temperatures of 7, 9, 12, 20, or 22°C, although there was considerable variation among pigs at any one temperature. However, at 30 and 33°C, the intake of water increased considerably. At 30°C and above, Close et al. (1971) observed behavioral responses to increased temperature. Urine and feces were voided over the whole pen area, and water was spilled from the water bowl presumably in an attempt to cool the pig's body surface.
The temperature of the water itself will affect intake because additional energy is required to warm liquids consumed at temperatures below that of the body. In an Australian study, pigs were reared from 45 to 90 kg body weight in either a cool room where the temperature was maintained at a constant 22°C or in a hot room where the temperature alternated from 35 to 24°C every 12 hours (Vajrabukka et al., 1981). Pigs kept in the cool room drank 3.3 L daily when the water was cooled to 11°C, compared with almost 4.0 L when the water was warmed to 30°C.
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In contrast, pigs kept in the hot room drank 10.5 L when the water was supplied at 11°C, but only 6.6 L when it was supplied at 30°C.
Hagsten and Perry (1976) reported reductions in water consumption and daily weight gain of 20 and 38 percent, respectively, when growing pigs were fed a diet containing less than 0.20 percent total salt (NaCl) or salt equivalent.
Use of antibiotics may also affect water consumption; some researchers report an increase in consumption, whereas others have reported a decrease. It has been hypothesized that the effect of antibiotics on water demand will depend on the relative extent to which water loss is reduced by the control of diarrhea and water demand is increased to enable renal clearance of the antibiotic or its residues (Brooks and Carpenter, 1993).
Bowland and Standish (1966) found that withholding access to water for 24 hours before slaughter restricted feed intake and resulted in body weight loss and apparent carcass shrinkage of 5.5 percent and 1.9 kg, respectively.
In wet feeding systems, water-to-feed ratios ranging from 1.5:1 to 3.0:1 seemed to have little effect on the performance or carcass quality of growing-finishing swine (Barber et al., 1963; Holme and Robinson, 1965). However, pigs fed with wet feeding systems should be given access to an additional source of fresh water to ensure adequate water intake in case of sudden changes in barn temperature or unexpected alterations in feed composition (e.g., high salt or protein levels).
Gestating Sows
The water intake of pregnant gilts increases in proportion to dry matter intake (Friend, 1971). For unbred gilts, feed and water intake diminished during estrus (Friend, 1973; Friend and Wolynetz, 1981). Nonpregnant gilts consumed 11.5 L of water daily, whereas gilts in advanced pregnancy consumed 20 L (Bauer, 1982). These quantities are similar to the values of 13.5 L (Riley, 1978) and 10.0 L (Lightfoot and Armsby, 1984). The practice of feed or water deprivation before or after weaning as a means of reducing the weaning-to-breeding interval in sows is not well supported by research evidence (Knabe et al., 1986). According to Madec (1984), urinary disorders are quite common in sows, and low water intake is strongly implicated. Pregnant sows given restricted levels of feed intake may show a desire to compensate for inadequate gut fill by an enhanced water intake. Increasing the fiber content of gestation diets is likely to increase the required ratio of water-to-feed.
Lactating Sows
Lactating sows need considerable amounts of water, not only to replace the 8 to 16 kg of daily milk secreted but also to void large amounts of metabolic end products in the urine. Daily water consumption for lactating sows was shown to vary from 12 to 40 L/day, with a mean of 18 L/day (Lightfoot, 1978). These quantities are similar to other recorded values for the daily water intake of lactating sows of 20 L (Bauer, 1982), 25.1 L (Riley, 1978), and 17.7 L (Lightfoot and Armsby, 1984).
Phillips et al. (1990) observed no difference in water consumption between sows housed in crates with high (2 L/minute) versus low (0.6 L/minute) flow rates of nipple drinkers. Similarly, the height of the nipple drinkers above the floor (600 mm versus 300 mm) did not affect water consumption patterns.
Boars
There are few data on the water requirements of boars, but free access to water is advisable. Straub et al. (1976) observed water intakes in boars (70 to 110 kg) of up to 15 L/day at 25°C compared with about 10 L/day at 15°C.
Water Quality
Elements and substances can occur in water at levels that are harmful to pigs (National Research Council, 1974). Water may contain a variety of microorganisms, including both bacteria and viruses. Of the former, Salmonella, Leptospira, and Escherichia coli are the most commonly encountered (Fraser et al., 1993). Water can also carry pathogenic protozoa as well as eggs or cysts of intestinal worms. Whether the presence of these microorganisms will be detrimental is largely dependent on the specific types found and their concentration. The Bureau of National Affairs (1973) proposed that water used for livestock should not contain more than 5,000 coliforms/100 mL. However, this recommendation can be considered as only a guide because some pathogens may be harmful below this level, whereas other, more benign microorganisms can be tolerated at much higher levels. Bacterial contamination is usually more common in surface waters than in underground supplies such as deep wells and artesian water.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) is a measure of the total inorganic matter dissolved in a sample of water. Calcium, magnesium, and sodium in the bicarbonate, chloride, or sulfate form are the most common salts found in water with a high TDS (Thulin and Brumm, 1991). Water containing >6,000 ppm TDS may cause temporary diarrhea and increased daily water intake, although health and performance are not usually affected. Paterson et al. (1979) offered water containing 5,060 ppm TDS to gilts and sows and reported no significant effects on reproduction. The addition of up to 6,000 ppm TDS to water offered to weaned pigs resulted in no effect on growth or feed effi-
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ciency. However, increases in water intake were reported along with temporary mild diarrhea and less firm feces for pigs offered the higher TDS levels in their water (Anderson and Stothers, 1978; Paterson et al., 1979).
Total dissolved solids is an inexact measure of water quality. As a general rule, water containing <1,000 ppm TDS should be safe, whereas water containing >7,000 ppm TDS may present a health risk for pregnant or lactating sows or for stressed pigs and should not be offered to swine for consumption (National Research Council, 1974). Between 1,000 and 7,000 ppm is a gray area, with some producers reporting economic loss at levels well below 7,000 ppm, whereas others experience transient or minor inconvenience at worst. Since so many different elements can contribute to a high TDS, further chemical analysis should be conducted on such water to determine whether the soluble minerals present represent a health risk. However, the values in Table 6-1 can be used as a guide.
The pH of water has little direct relevance to water quality, because almost all samples fall within the acceptable range of 6.5 to 8.5 (Fraser et al., 1993). However, alterations in pH can have a major impact on chemical reactions involved in the treatment of water. High water pH impairs the efficiency of chlorination, and low water pH may cause precipitation of some antibacterial agents delivered via the water system. Sulfonamides particularly pose a risk (Russell, 1985) and could lead to potential problems with carcass sulfa residues, because precipitated medication in the water lines may leach back into the water after medication has been terminated.
Water hardness is caused by multivalent metal cations, principally calcium and magnesium. Water is considered soft if hardness is <60 ppm, hard between 120 and 180 ppm, and very hard >180 ppm (Durfor and Becker, 1964). Even very hard water rarely causes problems for swine (National Research Council, 1980), although it does result in the accumulation of scale in water delivery systems. If this impairs water availability, problems can arise. In one
TABLE 6-1 Evaluation of Water Quality for Pigs Based on Total Dissolved Solids
Total Dissolved Solids (ppm)
Rating
Comment
<1,000
Safe
No risk to pigs.
1,000 to 2,999
Satisfactory
Mild diarrhea in pigs not adapted to it.
3,000 to 4,999
Satisfactory
May cause temporary refusal of water.
5,000 to 6,999
Reasonable
Higher levels for breeding stock should be avoided.
>7,000
Unfit
Risky for breeding stock and pigs exposed to heat stress.
SOURCE: Adapted from National Research Council, 1974
survey, excessively hard water from one region in Quebec, Canada was found to supply as much as 29 percent of a gestating sow's daily requirement for calcium (Filpot and Ouellet, 1988).
Sulfates are the primary cause of water quality problems in well water in many regions of North America. A recent survey conducted on the Canadian prairies indicated that 25 percent of wells contained excessive (>1,000 ppm) quantities of sulfates (McLeese et al., 1991). Sulfates are not well tolerated in the gut of the pig, resulting in diarrhea and reduced performance when levels are >7,000 ppm (Anderson et al., 1994). However, lower levels (2,650 ppm) have no detrimental effect on pig performance (Maenz et al., 1994). It would seem that pigs can adapt to elevated sulfate levels within a few weeks of exposure. This explains why weanling pigs are most susceptible to sulfates because they consume little water before weaning and, as a consequence, are not adapted. In addition, water odor is not necessarily an indication of poor quality water. Despite a distinct ''rotten egg" smell, water containing 1,900 ppm sulfates did not affect pig performance (DeWit et al., 1987).
Heavy applications of nitrogenous fertilizers to land and contamination of runoff water by animal wastes can raise nitrate concentrations in water supplies to exceedingly high levels. Nitrites impair the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood by reducing hemoglobin to methemoglobin. Winks et al. (1950) found that conversion of nitrate to nitrite in the water was necessary for toxicity to occur. They reported mortality in swine with access to well water containing 290 to 490 ppm of nitrate nitrogen. However, Seerley et al. (1965) considered it unlikely that sufficient nitrite would be formed and consumed in water alone to cause toxicity in swine unless the initial level of nitrate exceeds 300 ppm of nitrate nitrogen. Nitrite nitrogen levels greater than 10 ppm are cause for concern (Task Force on Water Quality Guidelines, 1987). Nitrates and nitrites in water also may impair the use of vitamin A by the pig (Wood et al., 1967). Additional ions may be occasionally found in water samples. Safety guidelines are provided in Table 6-2.
In situations where poor quality water exists, it is essential to determine its impact on animal performance. Often, producers are overly concerned about the diarrhea in situations where animal performance is not impaired. However, when poor water quality reduces performance, there are a number of things that can be done to alleviate the problem.
Chlorination disinfects and destroys disease-causing microorganisms. Protozoa and enteroviruses are much more resistant to chlorination than are bacteria (Fraser et al., 1993). The effectiveness of disinfection and the quantity of chlorine required in the water depends on the quantity of nitrites, iron, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and organic matter in the water. The presence of organic matter in the water converts the free chlorine to chloramines, which have less disinfecting action. Sodium hypochlorite or laundry
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TABLE 6-2 Water Quality Guidelines for Livestock
Recommended Maximum (ppm)
Item
TFWQGa
NRCb
Major ions
Calcium
1,000
–
Nitrate-N + Nitrite-N
100
440
Nitrite-N
10
33
Sulfate
1,000
–
Heavy metals and trace ions
Aluminum
5.0
–
Arsenic
0.5
0.2
Beryllium
0.1
–
Boron
5.0
–
Cadmium
0.02
0.05
Chromium
1.0
1.0
Cobalt
1.0
1.0
Copper
5.0
0.5
Fluoride
2.0
2.0
Lead
0.1
0.1
Mercury
0.003
0.01
Molybdenum
0.5
–
Nickel
1.0
1.0
Selenium
0.05
–
Uranium
0.2
–
Vanadium
0.1
0.1
Zinc
50.0
25.0
aTask Force on Water Quality Guidelines, 1987
bNational Research Council, 1974
bleach (5.25 percent chlorine solution) is commonly used for chlorination. The higher the pH, the more chlorine that is needed to achieve the same degree of disinfection.
Some changes in the diet may be warranted in response to problems of water quality. A reduction in the salt (NaCl) level in the diet is common on farms that use water containing a high mineral (TDS) load. Some salt can usually be removed without causing a problem because most diets contain a reasonable safety margin. However, care must be taken to ensure that adequate chloride levels are maintained in the diet because chloride is not usually found in high concentration in poor quality water.
Hard water may be improved with a water softener. The most common type is an ion-exchange unit in which sodium replaces calcium and magnesium in the water. This reduces the hardness of the water but has no effect on the overall mineral load (TDS) because the water then has a higher sodium content. Reverse osmosis units are available to remove sulfates, but both the capital and operating costs of the equipment are prohibitive for a livestock operation.
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
water consumption
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