Page 349
INDEX
A
Access to electronic data, move to limit, 5, 50-51
ACE-1 Science and Implementation Plan, 164
ACRIM. See Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor
Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor (ACRIM), 257-258
Adaptive observation strategies, 171, 188-190
Advection, 192-193
Aerometric Information Retrieval System, 127
Aerosol climatology, designing and deploying networks to document, 164
Aerosol physics, 63
Aerosol Radiative Forcing and Climate Change, 162
Aerosols. See also Atmospheric aerosols and atmospheric chemistry, 40
chemical and physical properties of, 129-131
direct radiative forcing of climate by, 73-74
and environmental quality, 23
and interactions with other atmospheric phenomena, 7, 86-87
predicting size distributions of, 75-76
Agencies. See Federal government and agencies
Agricultural planning, value of predictions to, 26
Aircraft. See also Commercial aircraft
atmospheric effects of, 203, 220-222, 224-225
Air quality
improving predictive numerical models for, 2, 7, 134
Air quality monitoring, 2, 134, 150-151
American Meteorological Society (AMS), 177
AMIP. See Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project
AMS. See American Meteorological Society
Anthropogenic influences, 246-247, 289-296
affecting lower atmosphere, 8, 22-24, 106
affecting stratospheric processes, 211-212
driving global chemical change, 117
separating from solar, 259-263
Appleton, Sir Edward, 210
Appleton anomalies, 236
ARM. See Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) program
Army Signal Corps, 21
Artificial intelligence (AI), 98
Page 350
ASOS. See Automated Surface Observation System
Atmospheric aerosols, 7, 129-131, 162-166
designing and deploying networks to document aerosol climatology, 164
designing and implementing intensive field programs for, 164-165
designing and implementing new suites of measurement technologies for tropospheric aerosols, 163-164
developing predictive model capability for, 165-166
maintaining and expanding stratospheric aerosol measurement capability, 162-163
Atmospheric boundary layer, 63, 172-173
resolving interactions at, 37-41
and studies, 88
Atmospheric chemistry
Environmentally Important Atmospheric (chemical) Species, 108, 140-168
infrastructure, 135-139
mission, 112-114
recent insights, 114-121
recommended research strategies for, 121-132
summary, 7
Atmospheric components, interactions with other Earth system components, 3, 184-185
Atmospheric dynamics, 169-198
recommended research, 7-8, 173-175
Atmospheric electricity, 6-7, 63, 67
and interactions with other atmospheric phenomena, 7, 65
investigating global electrical circuit and lightning as measures of stability and temperature, 78
mechanisms of charge separation in clouds, 78
nature and sources of middle-atmosphere discharges, 78, 249
production of NOx by lightning, 79
recommended research strategies for, 67, 77-79
Atmospheric emissions, rapidly increasing, 4, 45
Atmospheric forecasting. See Weather forecasting
Atmospheric information
developing a strategy for providing, 46-50
preserving free and open exchange of, 5, 50-51
prospects for, 48-49
Atmospheric information services
distributed, 49-50
funding for, 56-58
optimizing, 50
Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project (AMIP), 291, 315
Atmospheric observations. See Observations
Atmospheric physics
atmospheric electricity, 77-79, 93-95
atmospheric radiation, 71-74
atmospheric water, clouds, 73, 74-77, 87, 92, 102-103
boundary layer meteorology, 79-80, 87-89
cloud physics, 74-77
instrumentation, 103-106
mission, 68
models, improvement and testing, 84-85
small scale influences on large scale phenomenon, 99-102
Atmospheric potential vorticity, 172
Atmospheric prediction. See Weather forecasting
Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) program, 98
Atmospheric sciences, 1-2, 14-16, 101
contributions to the national well-being, 17-27, 65, 106, 111, 202, 271, 324
cost effectiveness of, 169-170
entering the twenty-first century, 15-16
key role of, 14
oceanography a close partner of, 15
role in environmental issues, 23-24
Auroral emission, 231
Automated Surface Observation System (ASOS), 21
Automated Weather Interactive Processing System (AWlPS), 21
B
Baroclinicity, effect on boundary layer, 80
BASC. See Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate
Page 351
Benefits and costs of atmospheric information services, 5, 47, 51-58
Benefits of atmospheric research, 17-27, 47
enhancing national economic vitality, 24-26
maintaining environmental quality, 22-24
protection of life and property, 17-22
strengthening fundamental understanding, 26-27
Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate (BASC), 1, 4, 6, 54, 59
disciplinary assessments of, 6-9, 28-29
leadership and management planning, 6
listing of reports of, 346-348
recommendations of, 3-5, 37-45
Boundary layer meteorology, 6, 65, 100
effects of inhomogeneity and baroclinicity on boundary layer, 80
exploiting new remote sensors, 88-89
interactions of planetary boundary layer, surface characteristics, and clouds, 81
and interactions with other atmospheric phenomena, 7
measurements of exchange of water, heat, and trace atmospheric constituents, 80-81
recommended research strategies for, 67, 79-81
structure of cloudy boundary layers, 79-80
turbulence and entrainment, 80
C
CAAA-90. See Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990
CAPE. See Convective available potential energy
CAPS. See Center for the Analysis and Prediction of Storms
CASH. See Commercial Aviation Sensing Humidity (CASH) program
CASR. See Committee on Atmospheric Services and Research
potential for, 107
Cavendish, Henry, 114
CCN. See Cloud condensation nuclei
CDNC. See Cloud droplet number concentrations
CEDAR. See Coupling, Energetics, and Dynamics of Atmospheric Regions
CEES. See Committee on Earth and Environmental Sciences
CENR. See Committee on Environment and Natural Resources
Center for the Analysis and Prediction of Storms (CAPS), 180
CFCs. See Chlorofluorocarbons
outgrowth of meteorology, 27
Charge generation, mechanisms of, 94-96
Charge separation in clouds, mechanisms of, 78
Chemical climatology, documenting, 109
Chemical constituents
developing new capabilities for observing, 2
disciplined forecasting for, 3
Chemical instrumentation, continue development and validation of, 159-160
Chemical meteorology system, developing, 138
Chemistry. See Atmospheric chemistry
Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) gases, 26, 123, 206, 222
and environmental quality, 22, 117- 119, 210-211
longevity of, 255
substitutes for, 216-217
Circulation systems, quasi-balanced and unbalanced, 172-173
Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (CAAA-90), 126, 134-135, 216
Climate, 272-324
climate monitoring, 2, 281, 307
climate sensitive enterprises, 25
climate weather and health, 44
climatic prediction, increase of skill in, 311-314
deterioration of current observational capability, 302-306
enhancing observational capability, 307-309
historical and paleoclimatic data, use of, 309-310
improvements in climate prediction, 314-316
key drivers for research, 297-302
mission statement, 278
priorities for climate research, 318-322
results of research in recent decades, 279-296
anthropogenic effects, 289-290
Page 352
decade-to-century variability (DEC-CEN), 283-288, 313-314
joint effects of greenhouse gas forcing and aerosols, 292-295
seasonal-to-interannual, 277, 279-283
Climate Variability and Prediction Program (CLIVAR), 308, 313, 321
Clinton administration, 52
CLIVAR. See Climate Variability and Prediction Program
Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), 66
Cloud droplet number concentrations (CDNCs), 74
coverage and radiative properties of clouds, 74
ice formation in the atmosphere, 75
improving understanding of precipitation formation, 75, 92-93
parameterizing subgrid-scale influences of clouds and microphysical processes on cloud models, 76-77
predicting size distributions of hydrometeors and aerosols affecting radiative transfer, 75-76
recommended research strategies for, 65-66, 74-77
Clouds
charge generation in, 94-96
consequences of, 39-40
effect on radiation streams, 39
feedback from, 290
improved understanding of their roles in climate, 73
and interactions with other atmospheric phenomena, 7, 85-86
modeling, 92
stratocumulus and cirrus, 85-86
Cloudy atmospheres, radiative transfer in, 72
Cloudy boundary layers, structure of, 79-80
CMEs. See Coronal mass ejections
Coal burning. 22-23
COARE. See Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Response Experiment
Collaboration
needed among agencies, 274
needed among disciplines, 4, 46
COMET. See Cooperative Program for Operational Meteorology, Education, and Training
Commercial aircraft, observations from, 30-31, 193
Commercial Aviation Sensing Humidity (CASH) program, 34
Committee on Atmospheric Chemistry, 77
Committee on Atmospheric Services and Research (CASR), listing of reports of, 346-348
Committee on Earth and Environmental Sciences (CEES), 52, 58
Committee on Environment and Natural Resources (CENR), 54-55
Subcommittee on Air Quality Research, 58
Committee on Solar and Space Physics (CSSP), 199, 204
Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Research (CSTR), 199, 204
Communication systems, space weather effects on, 8, 228, 231-241
Computer models, 14
Computers. See also Massively parallel processors (MPPs)
for atmospheric analysis, 14, 197
increasingly more powerful, 1, 13, 98-99
Computer-to-computer communication, 5, 47
Computer visualization, 98
Computer workstations, 197
Concentration monitoring networks, maintaining current, 150-151
Condensed-phase chemistry, facilities needed for studying. 7, 139
Confidence
in climate change predictions, 23
Convective available potential energy (CAPE), 94
Convective downdrafts, 172
Convective ensemble simulations, 91
Convective heating, 40
Convective momentum transfer, 91
Convective storms, 237
Convective systems, mesoscale, 172
Cooperative Program for Operational Meteorology, Education, and Training (COMET), 180
Cooperative Programme for the Monitoring and Evaluation of Long Range Air Pollutants in Europe (EMEP), 167-168
Page 353
Coordination, needed within atmospheric sciences, 46
Coronal mass ejections (CMEs), 37, 229, 231-233, 238, 242
Cosmic rays, 208
Costs. See Benefits and costs of atmospheric information services
Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Response Experiment (COARE), 91
Coupled systems, seeing components of Earth's environment as, 3
Coupling, Energetics, and Dynamics of Atmospheric Regions (CEDAR), 243
Coupling between chemistry, dynamics, and radiation, 145-147
Courant-Friedrichs-Lewy stability criterion, 193
Coverage and radiative properties of clouds, 74
CRAY supercomputers, YMP model, 197
CSSP. See Committee on Solar and Space Physics
CSTR. See Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Research
Cyclogenesis, 38
Cyclones, extratropical, 175-177. See also Tropical cyclones
D
Data
acquired for public purposes with public funds, 51
needed from over oceans, 8
Data assimilation techniques, 171, 188-190
Data denial experiments, 173, 194
Data from satellites and other remote sensors, innovative approaches to analyses of, 72-73
Dec-Cen. See Climate, decade-to-century variability (DEC-CEN)
Decision making, incorporating atmospheric information into, 5
Deposition fluxes, developing and evaluating techniques for measuring, 166-167
Differential absorption lidar (DIAL), 194
Digital communication, for aviation weather and flight planning capabilities, 48
Digital computers, for atmospheric analysis, 14
Dimethyl sulfide (DMS), oceanic production of, 76
Disaster statistics, 21
Disciplinary assessments, 6-9
Disciplined forecast process, 3-4, 41-43
Disease vectors, affected by weather and climate, 15, 44
Distributed atmospheric information services, implications of, 49-50
DMS. See Dimethyl sulfide
Dobson unit (DU), 124
DOC. See U.S. Department of Commerce
DOD. See U.S. Department of Defense
DOE. See U.S. Department of Energy
DOl. See U.S. Department of the Interior
Doppler laser, combining with Global Positioning System (GPS), 89
Doppler weather radar, 36, 68, 178-179
network, 21
Dropsonde tracking, 193
DU. See Dobson unit
E
Earth Observing System (EOS), 32, 98, 202, 217, 224, 308
Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE), 257-258, 290
The Earth's Electrical Environment, 77
Ecosystem exposure monitoring networks, designing and implementing, 167-168
Ecosystem exposure systems, 7, 110
Ecosystems, 15
Eddy correlation method, 153
Electricity. See also Atmospheric electricity
and Benjamin Franklin, 14
Electronic data, move to limit access to, 5, 50-51
changes in weather patterns associated with, 18, 183
value of predictions to agricultural planning, 26
El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle, 38-39, 85, 180, 273, 277, 279-283, 296-301, 311-313, 317
EMEP. See Cooperative Programme for the Monitoring and Evaluation of Long Range Air Pollutants in Europe
Emissions to the atmosphere, rapidly increasing, 4, 45
Energy budget for Earth, 35
Ensemble forecasting, 171, 183, 187-188
ENSO. See El Niño/Southern Oscillation cycle
Page 354
Environmental health, 2
Environmentally Important Atmospheric (chemical) Species, 7, 108-109, 112-114, 122, 132-135
atmospheric aerosols, 7, 129-131, 162-166
developing holistic and integrated understanding of, 7
greenhouse gases, 7, 123-126, 147-157, 300
photochemical oxidants, 7, 126-129, 157-161
stratospheric ozone, 7, 122-123, 140-147
Environmental management systems, 7. 111
assessing efficacy of, 7, 109, 134-135
Environmental quality
aerosols, 23
chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) gases, 22, 117-119, 210-211
and global change, 22-23
greenhouse gases, 22-23
long-term consequences of chemical emissions, 117-119
maintaining. 22-24
ozone, 22
Environmental shear, 91
EOS. See Earth Observing System
EPA. See U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ERBE. See Earth Radiation Budget Experiment
ERS-1. See European Remote Sensing Satellite
European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts, 184
European Remote Sensing Satellite (ERS-1). 36, 196
EUV. See Extreme ultraviolet
Expendable bathythermographs (XBTs), 281
Experimental forecasts, initiating, 3
Exposure assessment networks, deploying. 137
Extreme ultraviolet (EUV) radiation, 206, 263-264
F
FAA. See Federal Aviation Administration
FCCSET. See Federal Coordinating Council for Science, Engineering, and Technology
Federal government and agencies
access to atmospheric information, 50-51
development of new observational capabilities, 33-34
discipline of forecasting, role in, 41-43
emerging issues, 43
funding, see Federal funding of atmospheric research and operations
historical roles, 21
interactions at boundaries, 37-38
planning and management, 58-59
protection of life and property, 17-18
role in observations, 29-30
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), 24, 34
Federal Coordinating Council for Science, Engineering, and Technology (FCCSET), 52, 58
Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research, 4, 46
Federal Council for Science and Technology, 52
Federal funding of atmospheric research and operations, 52-58
by agency, 56
by categories, 55
for information services, 56
for operations, 57
Field programs, designing and implementing intensive, 164-165
Field studies, carrying out process-oriented, for algorithm development and evaluation, 168
"Fire weather," forecasting, 173, 186-187
Fiscal Year (FY) expenditures, 56
Flash floods, forecasting, 184-185
Flight planning capabilities, by digital communication, 48
Flows, surface-induced, 83
Flux measurements
conducting multiyear, over different ecosystems, 151-152
from oceans, improving methods for, 153
Forecasting. See Climate forecasting; Weather forecasting
Fossil fuels, consumption of, 23
Franklin, Benjamin, 14
Frontal cyclones, mesoscale, 173
Fundamental condensed phase processes, 111
Fundamental understanding of the atmosphere, 26-27
Fuzzy logic, 32
FY. See Fiscal Year
Page 355
G
Gas exchange, conducting large-scale studies of, 152
GCM. See General circulation models
GCOSs. See Global climate observing systems
GDP. See Gross Domestic Product
GEM. See Geospace Environment Modeling
General circulation models. atmospheric (GCMs), 66-67, 77, 260, 292, 315
construction and evaluation of, 321
Earth-ocean coupling of, 299, 311
parameterizing, 84-85
progress in, 300-301
Geomagnetic storms, 231-232
Geophysical fluid flow, fundamental problem of, 40-41
Geospace Environment Modeling (GEM), 243
Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES), 181
GEWEX. See Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment
GISS. See Goddard Institute for Space Studies
Global changes
affecting lower atmosphere, 8
affecting middle and upper atmosphere, 203
and environmental quality, 22-23
Global climate observing systems (GCOSs), 274, 306, 308
Global electrical circuit, as measure of stability and temperature, 78, 93-94
Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment (GEWEX), 45, 308, 321
Global observing system, 110
Global Ocean-Atmosphere-Land System (GOALS), 275, 308, 312, 320-321
Global Oscillation Network Group (GONG), 267-268
Global Positioning System (GPS), 194-195
accuracy of, 235
observations from, 31
radio occultation technique with, 37
Global rawinsonde network, halting deterioration in, 8, 173-174
Global stratospheric sulfate layer, 162
Global telecommunication system (GTS), 281
Global transport system, 14
GOALS. See Global Ocean-Atmosphere-Land System
Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS), 288
GOES. See Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite
GONG. See Global Oscillation Network Group
GPS. See Global positioning system Gravity waves, 90
Great Salinity Anomaly, 283
Greenhouse forcing of climate, 294
Greenhouse gases, 7, 22-23, 116, 123-126, 147-157, 289
conducting large-scale studies of gas exchange, 152
conducting multiyear flux measurements over different ecosystems, 151-152
conducting surface-based measurements near source regions, 152
devising new systems to make accurate concentration measurements, 153-154
expanding monitoring networks to include vertical profile measurements, 151
improving and developing models, 154
improving methods of measuring fluxes from oceans, 153
maintaining current concentration monitoring networks, 150-151
primary, 150
water vapor, 156-157
Gross domestic product (GDP), contributions made by weather and climate information, 24-25
GTS. See Global telecommunication system
H
Halogen Occultation Experiment, 157
Heaviside, Oliver, 210
Helioseismology, 267-268
Heterogeneous chemistry, 111, 224
facilities needed for studying, 7, 139
HF. See High frequency
High frequency (HF) events, 184, 234
Holistic research strategy, need to develop, 135
Human health
affected by weather and climate, 15
research recommended in, 44
space weather effects on, 8
Hurricane forecasting, 178-180
delineating optimal measurement system combinations for, 8
greatest opportunity to save lives and property, 178
Hurricane statistics, 19
Page 356
Hydrological cycle
improving understanding of, 171
and interactions with other atmospheric phenomena, 7
Hydrometeors, predicting size distributions of, 75-76
I
ICAS. See Interdepartmental Committee for Atmospheric Sciences
Ice formation in the atmosphere, 75, 87
Ice nucleus (IN) population, 76
IGAC. See International Global Atmospheric Chemistry (IGAC) project
IMF. See Interplanetary magnetic field
Immune system, affected by ultraviolet (UV) radiation, 15
Incoherent scatter (IS), 251
Incorporating atmospheric information into decision making, weather-dependent enterprises, 5
Infectious diseases, affected by weather and climate, 15, 44
Inferential observation-based studies, 161
Information. See Atmospheric information
Infrastructure
initiatives needed. 135-139, 200
modeling, 13
needed to advance research in atmospheric chemistry, 7, 110-111
observational, 13
Inhomogeneity, effect on boundary layer, 80
Institutional arrangements for climate research, 323
Instrument development programs, 7, 111, 139
Integrated assessments, support, 161
Integrated field campaigns, continue implementation of, 160-161
Integrating observing systems
to assimilate new forms of data, 32
with increased computing power, 31
with modeling efforts, 31
through international collaboration, 32
using information organizing systems, 32
using multiple data bases, 32
Intelligent systems, 98
Interactions
among atmospheric phenomena of different scales, 3, 89-92
among atmospheric phenomena of different sorts, 7
between atmosphere and other Earth system components, 3
complexity of, 63-64
land-atmosphere, 184-185
long-term, 38-39
modeling studies of, 3, 252, 254
nonlinear, 41
observational studies of, 3
of planetary boundary layer, surface characteristics, and clouds, 81
resolving, 37-41
surface, 38
theoretical studies of, 3
water substance, 65
Interdepartmental Committee for Atmospheric Sciences (ICAS), 52-53
Interdisciplinary studies needed, 4, 43-45
in climate, weather, and health, 4
in management of water resources in changing climate, 4
in rapidly increasing emissions to the atmosphere, 4
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 23, 292
International Global Atmospheric Chemistry (IGAC) Project, 87
International Research Institute for Climate Prediction, 42
International Solar-Terrestrial Program, 243
Interplanetary magnetic field (IMF), 37, 204
Interplanetary space, 204-205
Intrastratospheric transport, 146
Ionosphere, 8, 206, 210, 233, 234, 240, 251-254
IPCC. See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
K
Kennelly, Arthur E., 210
Kitt Peak National Observatory (KPNO), 269
L
Lagrangian experiments, 165, 192-193
Land-atmosphere interaction, 184-185
Large eddy simulation (LES) models, 80
Large-scale models
effects of moist convection in, 82
Page 357
incorporation of surface-induced flows into, 83
Laser Atmospheric Wind Sounder (LAWS) instrument, 196
Laser systems, for atmospheric analysis, 14
Lavoisier, Antoine-Laurent, 114
LAWS. See Laser Atmospheric Wind Sounder
Leadership and management, 4-5, 46-59
LES. See Large eddy simulation
Lidar systems, 36, 88-89. See also Differential absorption lidar
Life and property
need for forecasts and warnings, 18-21
protection of, 17-22
Life sciences, 15
Lightning
and Benjamin Franklin, 14
global monitoring of, 78
as measure of stability and temperature, 78, 93-94
propagation of, 94-96
M
Magnetic storms, 209
Magnetosphere, 205
Magnetospheric storms, 231
Marconi, Guglielmo, 210
Massively parallel processors (MPPs), 190, 197
Maunder Minimum period, 265
Maximum usable frequency (MUF), 234
MCS. See Mesoscale convective system
Measurements. See also Concentration measurements, Flux measurements, Observing systems
central importance of, 198
conducting surface-based near source regions, 152
of exchange of water, heat, and trace atmospheric constituents, 80-81
improving capabilities for making, 6, 103-106
Measurement systems
satellite-based, 195
Measurement technologies
for critical gas- and condensed-phase species, 143-145
for tropospheric aerosols, designing and implementing new suites of. 163-164
Mechanisms of charge separation in clouds, 78
Medium frequency (MF), 251
Mesoscale convective systems (MCSs), 82, 91, 181
Mesosphere-stratosphere-troposphere (MST), 251
Microphysical processes influencing clouds, 182, 202, 224
parameterizing, 76-77
Microwave Limb Sounder, 157
nature and sources of discharges, 78, 94-96
Middle-upper atmosphere
global change in, 201, 209, 245-255, 254-255
monitoring inputs to, 251-252
monitoring sensitive parameters of, 251
Midlatitude cyclones, small-scale features in, 82-83
Mission to Planet Earth satellite program, 252
Model development, 186
Modeling fluxes, 78
Modeling infrastructure, 13
Models and modelling
in atmospheric chemistry
in chemistry, dynamics and radiation coupling, 147
in integrated assessments, 161
long-term biogenic greenhouse gases, 154
and operational chemical forecasting, 138
overarching research challenge, 134
predicted ozone column change, 124
in toxic and nutrient investigation, 168
in atmospheric dynamics and weather forecasting
adaptive observations, 188
adjoint models, 176
in atmospheric convection studies, 180-187
ensemble forecasting, 187-188
massively parallel processors, used for, 190, 197
numerical techniques, 191-193
in orographic effects. 185-186
parameterization for, 190-191
for tropical cyclones, 178
in atmospheric physics
Page 358
rapidly increasing computational power, 98-99
representation in cyclones, 82-83
in climate and climate change research
construction and evaluation of comprehensive models, 275, 321
in coupled atmosphere-ocean research, 290, 301, 310-311
in decade-to-century variability, 284, 286-289
in ENSO prediction, 298
linkages between climate model prediction and human relevance, 316-317
data for improvement of, 30
fundamental aspects, 26
fundmg for, 55
in upper atmosphere and near-Earth space research
atmospheric effects of aircraft, 220-221, 224
interactive radiative-dynamic-chemistry models, 217
in middle and upper atmosphere research, 252, 254
in space weather forecasting, 243
stratospheric-tropospheric interactions, 222, 224, 225
Model vertical coordinates, 192
Moist convection, 88
effects in large-scale models, 82
Monitoring. See Climate monitoring
Monitoring networks. See Observing systems
''Montreal Protocol,'' 22, 216
Motion of tropical cyclones, physics of, 8
Mt. Pinatubo, 218-219, 286, 288
MPPs. See Massively parallel processors
MST. See Mesosphere-stratosphere-troposphere
MUF. See Maximum usable frequency
N
NAAQS. See National Ambient Air Quality Standard
NARSTO. See North American Research Strategy on Troposphere Ozone
NASA. See National Aeronautics and Space Administration
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 54, 98, 223, 241, 243, 308-309, 319
National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS), 126, 131
National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), 36, 97
National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP), 42, 188
National Crop Loss Assessment Network (NCLAN), 168
National economic vitality
benefits of weather and climate information, 24-26
enhancing, 24-26
National Lightning Detection Network, 94
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 21, 196, 241, 243, 287, 303, 309, 319
Aircraft Operations Center, 36
International Research Institute for Climate Prediction, 42
National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP), 42
Office of Global Programs, 34
National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS), 319
National Research Council (NRC), 199, 204, 210
Committee on Solar and Space Physics (CSSP), 199, 204
Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Research (CSTR), 199, 204
National Science and Technology Council (NSTC), 58
National Science Foundation (NSF), 223, 241, 243, 309
National Space Weather Program (NSWP), 241-243
National weather information system, rapid changes in, 4-5
National Weather Service (NWS), 21, 47-49
National well-being
contributions of the atmospheric sciences to, 17-27, 65, 106, 111, 202, 271, 324
enhancing national economic vitality, 24-26
maintaining environmental quality, 22-24
protection of life and property, 17-22
strengthening fundamental understanding, 26-27
Nature and sources of middle-atmosphere discharges, 78
NCAR. See National Center for Atmospheric Research
Page 359
NCEP. See National Centers for Environmental Prediction
NCLAN. See National Crop Loss Assessment Network
NDSC. See Network for Detection of Stratospheric Change
Network for Detection of Stratospheric Change (NDSC), 155-157
Newton, Sir Isaac, 14
Next Generation Weather Radar (NEXRAD), 48, 175, 181
NIMBUS-7 experimental environmental research satellite, 217, 257-258
NOAA. See National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Nonlinearity, fundamental problem of, 40-41, 119-121, 184
Nonspherical particles, radiation transfer through a medium containing, 72
North American Atmospheric Observing System, 32
North American Research Strategy on Troposphere Ozone (NARSTO), 159
North American Strategy for Tropospheric Ozone program, 58
"Nowcasting," 201
production by lightning, 79, 96-97
NPOESS. See National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System
NRC. See National Research Council
NSF. See National Science Foundation
NSTC. See National Science and Technology Council
NSWP. See National Space Weather Program
Numerical computer models of the atmosphere, 3-4
Numerical techniques, 191-193
for advection, 192-193
model vertical coordinates, 192
Numerical weather prediction (NWP) models, 181, 190
Nutrients, 7, 132, 149, 166-168
carrying out process-oriented field studies for algorithm development and evaluation, 168
designing and implementing ecosystem exposure monitoring networks, 167-168
developing and evaluating techniques for measuring deposition fluxes, 166-167
NWP. See Numerical weather prediction (NWP) models
NWS. See National Weather Service
O
Observational technologies, improving understanding of interactions among atmosphere, ocean, land, 13, 101
Observations
adaptive strategies for making, 31
from commercial aircraft, 30-31, 193
deterioration of, 173, 302-306
from the Global Positioning System (GPS), 31
in near-Earth space, 37
new opportunities for, 30-31, 100-101
preserving free and open exchange of, 1, 47, 50-51, 302-306
in the stratosphere, 36
of water in the atmosphere, 34-35
of wind, 35-36
Observing systems
for atmospheric chemistry research, 110-111, 136-138, 150-154, 155-156, 160-161, 162-165, 167-168
for atmospheric physics research, 88, 97, 103-105
for climate and climate change research, 274, 281, 301-306, 308-309, 318-320
for dynamics and weather forecasting research, 193-197
for upper atmosphere and near-Earth research, 216-218, 244, 258
Observing system simulation experiments (OSSEs), 2, 33, 173, 177
Oceanography, close partner of atmospheric sciences, 15
Oceans
critical boundary for atmosphere, 15
fluxes over, 38-39
long-term interactions with, 38-39
Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology (OFCM), 56, 58. See also Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research
Page 360
Operational community, interacting with research community, 2
Operational models, 102
Orographic influences on weather, 172, 185-186
Oscillation effects, quasi-biennial, 220
OSSE. See Observing system simulation experiment
Overarching Research Challenges, atmospheric chemistry, 129-131
Ozone layer. See stratospheric ozone
Ozone, tropospheric. See tropospheric photochemical oxidants
Ozonsonde program, 155
P
Paleoclimatic records, 299, 309-310
Pattern recognition, 98
PCBs. See Polychlorinated biphenyls
Phenomena. See Atmospheric phenomena
Photochemical oxidants. See tropospheric photochemical oxidants. See also Smog
Photoionization, 240
Physical processes. See also Atmospheric physical processes
interactions between radiation and, 74
occurring on subgrid scales in climate models, 84
parameterizing, 190-191
Physics. See Atmospheric physics,
Phytotoxics, 149
Planetary boundary layer, surface characteristics of, 81
A Plan for a Research Program on Aerosol Radiative Forcing and Climate Change, 87
Polarimetric radar, 181-182
Polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs), 118
Polychlonnated biphenyls (PCBs), 166
Power grid operation, space weather effects on, 8, 227
Pre-chlorofluorocarbon era, 141-142
Precipitation, radars for measuring. 14
Precipitation formation, 70, 100
improved understanding of, 75
Predictability, 186
Prediction. See Weather forecasting
Predictive models
developing capability, 165-166
improving numerical, 2
Priestley, Joseph, 114
Primary greenhouse gases, 150
Private meteorological sector
in fashioning the agenda, 59
in leadership and management, 46
in preparing predictions, 24
in providing weather services, 47-49
Process study observation, 102
Production of NOx by lightning, 79
PSC. See Polar stratospheric cloud
Publicly-funded data acquisition, preserving open access to, 5, 50-51
Q
QBO. See Quasi-biennial oscillation
Quantification and characterization of critical gas-phase and heterogeneous mechanisms, 147
Quantitative descriptions, developing, 102-103
Quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO), 220, 250
Quasi-geostrophic theory, 83
R
Radars
early data networks, 21
measuring precipitation for atmospheric analysis, 14
measuring wind for atmospheric analysis, 14
Radiation. See Atmospheric physics
Radiation transfer models, 71-72
using observational data, 84-85
Radiation transfer through a medium containing nonspherical particles, 72
Radiative forcing of climate
instantaneous, 294
by trace gases and aerosols, 73-74, 293
Radiative transfer, 70
in cloudy atmospheres, 72
Radioacoustic sounding system (RASS), 195
Radio occultation technique with GPS, 37
deterioration of, 303
early, 21
worldwide, 32
Page 361
Radiosonde observational networks, early, 21
Rainfall events, variability in location of, 35
RASS. See Radioacoustic sounding system
Rawinsonde tracking, 193
Recommendations of the Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate (BASC), 3-5, 37-45
Remote sensing capabilities
exploiting, 88-89
satellites for atmospheric analysis, 14
S
SAGE. See Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment
SAR. See Subcommittee on Atmospheric Research
Satellites and atmospheric chemistry research
global chemistry measurement of greenhouse gases on a range of scales, 153
recommendation for optimal combinations of remote sensing and in situ observations, 173
satellite inferences of storm-associated rain rates, 179
satellite measurement of stratospheric aerosol, 162
small satellites useful to study chemistry at high altitudes, 147
Satellites and atmospheric physics research
GCM parameterization compared with data from the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project, 85
inferring hydrometeor and cloud characteristics from satellite observations, 101
innovative approaches to the analysis of data from, 72
process study parameterizations generalized and extrapolated by satellite data, 102
satellites for characterizing precipitation over the oceans, 103
Satellites in atmospheric dynamics and weather forecasting research
GPS receiver and satellite transmissions for water vapor measurement, 194-195
satellite measurement of wind using Doppler lidar, sea surface scatterometers, 195-197
Satellites in climate and climate change research
intersatellite measurement bias, 303-305
stratospheric temperatures from satellite measurement, 287, 288
Satellites in upper-atmosphere and near-Earth space research
satellite measurement of solar irradiance, 257-259
satellites showing space environment effects, 235
UARS measurements of chemistry of the stratosphere, 213
weather satellite damage from space weather disturbances, 227, 228
Scales of flow, resolving interactions among different, 37-41
Schumann resonances, 78
Scientific strategy
initiatives supporting, 65
key components of, 64-65
SEASAT (sea satellite) oceanographic satellite, 196
Seasonal climate forecasting, 8, 183-184
Sea surface temperature anomalies (SSTAs), 282
Sea surface temperatures (SSTs), 298, 312
Semigeostrophic theory, 83
Semi-Lagrangian approach, 192-193
Signal processing, 98
Skin cancer, affected by ultraviolet (UV) radiation, 15
"Skycam" operations, 195
Small-scale dynamics, 6
effects of moist convection in large-scale models, 82
incorporation of surface-induced flows into large-scale models, 83
interactions with larger-scale processes. 89-92, 99-102
recommended research strategies, 67, 81-83
representation of small-scale features in midlatitude cyclones, 82-83
Small-scale features, dynamical representation of in midlatitude cyclones, 82-83
SMM. See Solar Maximum Mission
Society, greater confidence in forecasts, 1, 13
Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO), 267-268
Solar effects, 219-220
separating from anthropogenic, 259-263
Page 362
Solar energetic particles (SEPs), 229, 231
Solar energy output, over a solar cycle, 257-259, 267-268
Solar influences, 210, 256-271
Solar Maximum Mission (SMM) spacecraft, 257
Solar phenomena
interactions with near-Earth space, 26
long-term changes in, 268
near-Sun wind, 37
streams from flares, 14
Solar-terrestrial system, need for models of, 9
Solar variability, 8
effects on global climate system, 8
and global change, 203-204
Space climate, 228-229
Space physics activities, near-Earth, improving predictive numerical models for, 2
disturbances, 228
forecasting, 3, 6, 9, 43, 200-201
ionospheric, 240
magnetospheric, 239
Space weather system, 229-234
Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSM/I), 35, 178
SST. See Sea surface temperature
SSTAs. See Sea surface temperature anomalies
STE. See Stratosphere-troposphere exchange
Stratosphere
recommended research strategies for, 202-204
roles played in climate system, 200-201, 203, 222-223
Stratosphere-troposphere exchange (STE), 221-222
better characterization of, 225
Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE), 155-156
Stratospheric aerosols, 224
maintaining and expanding measurement capability, 162-163
Stratospheric aircraft, 8
Stratospheric modeling, 224
Stratospheric ozone, 7, 122-123, 140-147, 202, 213-218, 223-224
coupling between chemistry, dynamics, and radiation, 145-147
and environmental quality, 22
measuring critical gas- and condensed-phase species, 143-145
monitoring distribution of, 142-143
quantification and characterization of critical gas-phase and heterogeneous mechanisms, 147
Stratospheric processes, 8, 208-209, 211-225
Stratospheric-tropospheric exchange, 146
Studies needed. See Interdisciplinary studies needed
Subcommittee on Atmospheric Research (SAR), 52-53, 58
Subgrid-scale influences of clouds, parameterizing, 76-77
Subgrid scale (SGS), 84
Sulfate concentrations in atmosphere, 106
Sulfate layer, global stratospheric, 162
evaluating state of, 265
Sun-Earth connections, 226
Sunspot records, 261
Sun's Radiative Inputs from Sun to Earth (SUNRISE) program, 243
Surface effects, quantifying and parameterizing, 87-88
Surface exchange measurement systems, 7, 110, 138
Surface-induced flows, incorporation into large-scale models, 83
Surface UV network, 216
monitoring, 224
T
TAO. See Tropical Atmosphere Ocean array
Teamwork, importance of, 6, 323
Technology transfer programs, 7, 111, 139
Terrain scale, 185-186
Time lagging, 187
TOGA. See Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere (TOGA) program
TOGA-TAO array. See Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere-Tropical Atmospheric Ocean array
Topography, continuous scales of, 185-186
Tornado dynamics, 181
Tornado statistics, 19
carrying out process-oriented field studies for algorithm development and evaluation, 168
Page 363
designing and implementing ecosystem exposure monitoring networks, 167-168
developing and evaluating techniques for measuring deposition fluxes, 166-167
Trace chemical species, 86-87, 115. See also Environmentally Important Atmospheric (chemical) species
Trace gases, direct radiative forcing of climate by, 73-74
Transport, 70
global, 14
intrastratospheric, 146
turbulent, 100
Triggering, 186
TRMM. See Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission
Tropical Atmosphere Ocean (TAO) array, 38, 274, 281, 305
Tropical cyclones, 177-180
changes in intensity of, 8
dynamics of, 172
and interactions with upper ocean layers, 8
midlatitude, 82-83
physics of motion of, 8
Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere (TOGA) program, 42, 91, 274, 281, 298, 305-306, 311, 321
Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere-Tropical Atmospheric Ocean (TOGA-TAO) array, 34, 38, 319
Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission (TRMM), 35
Tropopause
exchange of material through, 224-225
role in atmospheric dynamics, 172
Troposphere, exchanges with other layers, 3
Tropospheric aerosols, designing and implementing new suites of measurement technologies for, 163-164
Tropospheric photochemical oxidants
instrumentation development, measurements documentation assessment, 7, 126-129, 157-161
Tropospheric stability, 78
Turbulence, 64
and entrainment, 80
U
UARS. See Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite
UAV. See Unmanned aerospace vehicle
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation, 14, 213-218
increasing intensity of, 254-255
solar, 206
variability in, 262
U.S. Air Force, 241
U.S. Department of Commerce (DOC), 241, 243
U.S. Department of Defense (DOD), 241, 243, 319
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), 98, 241
U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI), 241
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 126, 131
U.S. Geological Survey, 241
U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP), 3, 21, 23, 37, 55, 58, 279
U.S. National Climate Program, 279
U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, 210
U.S. Weather Research Program (USWRP), 3, 21, 37, 170
Unmanned aerospace vehicles (UAVs), 98
Upper-atmosphere processes, 199-271
growing emphasis on prediction of, 14
recommended strategies for studying, 8-9
research in, 8-9
stratospheric processes affecting, 8
Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS), 157, 217, 224, 257, 262-263
Upper ocean layers, and interactions with tropical cyclones, 8
Upper-troposphere, water vapor in, 64
USGCRP. See U.S. Global Change Research Program
USWRP. See U.S. Weather Research Program
UV-B radiation, 212-213
UV flux, 217-218
V
Vertical profiles, 195
Vertical transport mechanisms, 33, 39
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 122
Page 364
Volcanic effects, 8, 202, 218-219, 219, 224
Vorticity. potential, 172
W
Water in soil, 184-185
and hydrology, 174
Water in the atmosphere and on land
aerosols and clouds, 130-131
from aircraft, 220
cloud physics, 74-77
cloud radiative properties, 85-86
deposition in precipitation, 167
distributions in the atmosphere, 102-103
enhanced observation of water in all forms, 307
in EOS and GEWEX, 308
hydrometeors, 75
ice, 87
interaction with chemical species, 86-87
liquid in clouds, 191
measurements of, 156-157, 182, 194-195, 274
phase change and atmospheric circulation, 174
precipitation mechanisms, 92-93
run off,
water vapor as a greenhouse gas, 149, 290
WCRP. See World Climate Research Programme
The Weather Channel, 48
Weather damage, 20-21
Weather-dependent enterprises, incorporating atmospheric information into decision making, 5, 47
Weather fatalities, 18-21, 174
Weather forecasting research, 225. See also Climate forecasting
convection, 180-183
data acquisition, 193-197
data manipulation, 188-190
ensemble forecasting, 187-188
numerical techniques, 191-193
recommendations, 173-175
and storms, 175-180
Weather forecasts, 169-198
economic benefit of, 24-26
four-way partnership for providing, 17-18
initiating experimental, 3, 49
new systems for providing, 47-48, 171
spatial scales relevant to, 2-3
temporal scales relevant to, 2-3
Weather modification, 93-94
Weather satellites, 21
Weather-sensitive enterprises, 25
Weather Service Radar (U.S. National Weather Service) 1988 Doppler Weather Radar System (WSR-88D), 35-36, 181
Weinberg, Alvin M., 15
Wind
developing new capabilities for observing, 2
observations of, 35-36
radars for measuring, 14
WMO. See World Meteorological Organization
WOCE. See World Ocean Circulation Experiment
World Climate Research Programme (WCRP), 45, 275-276, 279, 313-315, 320-321
World Meteorological Organization (WMO), 302, 306
World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE), 308
World Weather Watch (WWW), 302
World Wide Web (WWW), 48
X
XBT. See Expendable bathythermograph
X-rays, 263-264
Y
YMP. See CRAY supercomputers
