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How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School (1999)
Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education (CBASSE)

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INDEX

A

Abstract reasoning, 62, 66, 77

Action research, 179, 187-188

Active learning, 10, 12-13, 68, 170, 206

Adaptive expertise, 33-36, 38, 49, 61, 121, 128

African Americans, 60, 61, 97, 98, 123

Algebra, 46, 51, 53, 125-126, 186, 201-202, 213

Alice in Wonderland/Through the Looking Glass books, 93-95

American Association of Physics Teachers, 179

Analogical reasoning, 50, 52, 53-54, 98

Annenberg Critical Friends Project, 185-186

Apprenticeship learning, 97, 179, 202, 208-209

Assessments.

See also Methodologies, learning assessment;

Self-assessment

alternative, 180

conditionalized knowledge and, 31

content-process framework, 131-132

cultural sensitivity in, 60, 98-99, 134

with feedback, 31, 128-129, 142, 232

formative, 128-129, 130, 140, 142, 155, 205, 207

grading practices, 134

of initial learning, 43, 44, 45

learning environments centered on, 127-132, 142, 176, 184-185

memorization focus, 9, 128, 129, 140, 177, 233

multiple-choice tests, 128

portfolio, 130, 208

principles, 127-128, 232-233

of strategic competence, 85

standardized tests, 120, 128, 129, 138, 177, 198-199, 208

summative, 128, 129, 142, 177

teacher learning opportunities, 185-186, 233

theoretical frameworks, 130-132

of understanding, formats for, 44, 129, 130, 131

uses, 128

Astrocytes, 107, 114

Automaticity of skills, 127

Axons, 104

B

Bank Street College, 196, 215

Bay Area and National Writing Project, 183, 185

Behaviorism, 6-8

Beliefs, teachers', 36, 60, 61, 146, 147, 148-149, 152, 158, 159, 183, 187, 191

Belvedere system, 202

Biological causality, 4, 76-77, 78, 100

Biology, 56, 58-59, 162-165, 172-174, 175, 181, 204, 215

Brain development

basics, 104-105

blood vessel formation, 106-108, 114

environments for learning and, 107

exercise and, 105-107, 108

experiences and, 105-107, 108, 109, 112-113, 114-115

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INDEX A Abstract reasoning, 62, 66, 77 Action research, 179, 187-188 Active learning, 10, 12-13, 68, 170, 206 Adaptive expertise, 33-36, 38, 49, 61, 121, 128 African Americans, 60, 61, 97, 98, 123 Algebra, 46, 51, 53, 125-126, 186, 201-202, 213 Alice in Wonderland/Through the Looking Glass books, 93-95 American Association of Physics Teachers, 179 Analogical reasoning, 50, 52, 53-54, 98 Annenberg Critical Friends Project, 185-186 Apprenticeship learning, 97, 179, 202, 208-209 Assessments. See also Methodologies, learning assessment; Self-assessment alternative, 180 conditionalized knowledge and, 31 content-process framework, 131-132 cultural sensitivity in, 60, 98-99, 134 with feedback, 31, 128-129, 142, 232 formative, 128-129, 130, 140, 142, 155, 205, 207 grading practices, 134 of initial learning, 43, 44, 45 learning environments centered on, 127-132, 142, 176, 184-185 memorization focus, 9, 128, 129, 140, 177, 233 multiple-choice tests, 128 portfolio, 130, 208 principles, 127-128, 232-233 of strategic competence, 85 standardized tests, 120, 128, 129, 138, 177, 198-199, 208 summative, 128, 129, 142, 177 teacher learning opportunities, 185-186, 233 theoretical frameworks, 130-132 of understanding, formats for, 44, 129, 130, 131 uses, 128 Astrocytes, 107, 114 Automaticity of skills, 127 Axons, 104 B Bank Street College, 196, 215 Bay Area and National Writing Project, 183, 185 Behaviorism, 6-8 Beliefs, teachers', 36, 60, 61, 146, 147, 148-149, 152, 158, 159, 183, 187, 191 Belvedere system, 202 Biological causality, 4, 76-77, 78, 100 Biology, 56, 58-59, 162-165, 172-174, 175, 181, 204, 215 Brain development basics, 104-105 blood vessel formation, 106-108, 114 environments for learning and, 107 exercise and, 105-107, 108 experiences and, 105-107, 108, 109, 112-113, 114-115

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functional organization, 108-109, 110-111, 114 instruction and, 109-111 language and, 109-112, 115 learning and, xv-xvi, 4, 102-103, 107-109, 222, 223 misconceptions about, 102 neural activity and, 107-108, 115 plasticity, xix, 111, 221, 236 social interaction and, 107, 114 synaptic connections, 104-106, 107-108, 110, 114 timetable for, 109-110, 114-115 Brain processes memory and, 112-114 silent areas, 102 Breadloaf Writing Project, 186 BreadNet, 186 Bridging strategy, 167, 168, 175 Bruer, John, 115 Bush, Vannevar, 201 C Calculus, 54 Case-based learning, 50, 65 Cat learning, 6-8 Causality biological, 4, 76-77, 78, 100 physical, 72-76 Challenge 2000 Multimedia Project, 210 Chèche Konnen approach, 171-172, 175, 229, 230 Chess, 20, 22-24, 31, 44 Chicago Teachers Academy for Mathematics and Science, 183 Children's learning. See also Infant cognition biological causality, 4, 76-77, 78, 100 caregiver-child interactions, xv, 91-92, 100-101, 223 children's conceptions of intelligence and, 70, 89-90 choosing strategies, 87-89 community environments, 70, 99, 101 conversational, 97-98 cultural variations in communication, 96-99, 101 eavesdropping, 97-98 guided learning, 90-99 inquiry-based, 95, 98-99 language, 4, 79-83, 90, 97, 100, 109 mathematics, 4, 12, 57, 59, 79, 80, 100, 125-126, 184, 228-229 memory capacity and, 46, 83-84 metacognition, xv, 35, 70, 85-86, 223 motivation, xv, 49, 65, 89-90, 100, 222 multiple intelligences and, 70, 89 multiple-strategy usage, 86-89 non-self-directed, 90 number concepts, 4, 79, 80, 100 observational, 97 physical concepts, 75-76, 90, 100 preconceptions, xiv, 10-11 prior knowledge, 10-11, 41, 42-43, 56-61, 66 privileged-domain competencies, xiv, 69-70, 72-83, 90, 100, 222 processing time, 46 reading, 93-96 reasoning complexity, xiv, 87, 126, 141, 222 science, 126, 171-174 self-directed, 90 story-telling, 96 strategic competence, xv, 70, 83, 84-86, 100 television and, 70, 138 tool use, 75-76 Chunking/clustering technique, 20-21, 26, 40, 84-85 Classroom Action Research Network, 187 Classrooms communications technology for, 170, 207 community connections, 195-196, 212-214 competitiveness of students, 134 environments for learning, 132-135, 142, 234, 235 Global Lab, 197

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norms and expectations, 133-135, 176 research-based in, 187-188 Classtalk, 170, 207 Coaching, 30, 56, 165-166, 168-170, 210-211 Cognitive representations and strategies, 53, 132, 133 science, 8 Cognitively Guided Instruction Project, 185 Collaborative learning action research, 187 computer technology and, 197, 200-201, 207, 209 scientist-student partnerships, 197, 205 students, 62, 96, 129, 140, 170, 180, 210-211 teachers, 183, 185-187 Communication cultural differences, 61, 96-99, 101 interactive, 195-196, 207 network, 208-209 Communities of learners, 88, 144-145, 156, 170, 187, 192 Communities of practice, 171-172, 185-186, 195-196, 197, 215-217 Community learning environments broader community connections, 49, 135-137, 142, 212-214, 233-234 children's learning and, 70, 99, 100 classrooms, 132-135, 142 computer technology and, 70, 200-201, 212-214, 215-216 schools, 135, 142 student-scientist partnerships, 197 for teachers, 185-187, 192, 215-216 Competence. See also Strategic competence zone of proximal development, 68-69, 70, 96 Competitiveness of students, 134 Comprehension-fostering activities, 95-96 Computational modeling research, 14 Computer language tasks, 41, 43, 48, 53 Computer programming experts, 21 Computer-Supported Intentional Learning Environments (CSILE), 207-208, 209, 215 Computer technology applications, xix, 231-232, 235 classroom communications systems, 170 classroom-community connections, 70, 195-196, 197, 212-214, 231, 235 curriculum innovations, 4, 56, 195-201, 232 feedback through, 166, 170, 204-212, 231 importance, 194-195, 217-218 research recommendations, xxiii, 239-240 scaffolds and scaffolding, 56, 201-204, 231 teacher learning opportunities, 182, 183, 186, 214-217, 231 tools, 56, 62, 195, 201-204, 231-232 tutoring environments, 166, 209-212, 213 Conceptions of learning, changes in, xi-xii Concepts knowledge organized around, 9, 21, 24, 26, 30-32, 37, 169-170 representations of, 51, 53-54 Conceptual change. See also Preconceptions science, 167-168, 172-174, 175 understanding, 58-59 Conceptual learning, 48, 153-154 conceptual structures, 9, 21, 24, 26, 28, 30-32, 37, 47, 53-54, 75 , 169-170 Conditionalized knowledge, 30-32, 37, 47-48, 50, 185 Consciousness studies, 6 Constructivism, 10-11, 180, 183, 187 Content knowledge. See Subject-matter (discipline) knowledge Content-process assessment framework, 131-132

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Context and access to knowledge, 9, 30-32, 37, 65 and language development, 82-83 and transfer of learning, 41, 50-51, 52, 66, 173 Contextualized reasoning, 62-63, 66 Contrasting-cases strategy, 48, 66 Conversational learning, 97-98, 208, 213-214 Cooperative learning, 180 Counting, 59, 66, 71, 79, 80, 86-87, 88, 153-154, 155, 157, 184, 225, 228 Cultural practices and children's learning, 96-99, 101 classroom norms and, 134-135 communications, 61, 96-99, 101 misinterpretation of, 139 sensitivity of teachers to, 121-122, 123-124, 141 transfer of learning and, 4, 59-61, 66, 97-99 Curricula computer-based innovations, 4, 56, 195-201 design approaches, 30, 31, 126-127, 141 limitations of traditional approaches, 124-125, 126, 127 multiple-intelligences basis, 89 with real-world contexts, 57, 62-64, 157, 159, 195-201 scope and sequence charts, 126 D Dade Academy of the Teaching Arts, 186 Dart-throwing experiments, 44 Dendritic fields, 104 Descriptive Review, 186 Developmental psychology, 70-72, 79 Dewey, John, 63, 120, 135 Diagnostic teaching, 122-123 Diagraming by experts, 26 Discourse, classroom, 60, 123, 171, 175, 187, 192 Doctrine of formal discipline, 39 Dodgson, C.L. (Lewis Carroll), 93-95 E Eavesdropping, 97-98 Education goal changes, 4-5, 119-121 science of learning and, 4-5, 13-14 teacher preservice, 188-191, 192, 216, 217 Elaboration, 84 Entity theories, 90 Environments for learning, 4 alignment of goals, 139-140, 142 assessment-centered, xvii, 127-132, 142, 176, 184-185 and brain development, 107 community-centered, xvii, 132-137, 142, 176, 185-187 educational goal changes, 119-121 interconnected components, 121, 122, 124, 126, 142, 235 knowledge-centered, xvii, 124-127, 141, 176, 182-183 language development and, 81-83 learner centered, xvi-xvii, 121-124, 126, 141, 176, 180-182, 200-201 for teachers, 4, 180-187 television, 137-139 Ethnography, 15, 98-99 Exercise, and brain development, 105-107, 108 Experiences and brain development, 105-107, 108, 109, 112-113, 114-115 prior, and transfer of learning, 41, 42-43, 56-61, 66 Expert performance adaptive, 33-36, 38, 49, 61, 121, 128 content knowledge and, 33, 38, 144, 145, 147, 149, 151-152, 154, 176 context and access to knowledge, 9, 30-32, 37, 65 metacognition and, 35-36, 38

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organization of knowledge, 4, 24-30, 33, 36, 37, 38, 44, 113, 124, 127, 143, 225-226, 227 pattern recognition, 20-24, 32, 36, 38, 44 principles of, xii-xiii, 19, 36-38 retrieval of knowledge, 20-21, 32, 37, 38, 44 segmentation of perceptual fields, 24 talent and, 46 teaching ability, 4, 21, 24, 25, 32-33, 34, 37-38, 143-145, 147-149, 176, 216-217, 228, 230 time investment for, 44, 46, 227 Extracurricular clubs and organizations, 137, 233-234 F Family internet linkages with schools, 212-213 learning environment, 91-92, 96-99, 100-101, 136-137, 141, 142, 234 Feedback, 47 assessments with, 31, 128-129, 142, 232 computer technology, 166, 170, 204-212 importance, 65-66 interactive lectures, 168, 175, 207 peer, 207-208, 210-211 teacher learning from, 184-185, 191 tutoring environments, 165-166, 209 types of, 146, 148-149 Fish Is Fish, 10-11, 58, 124 Formative assessments, 128-129, 130, 140, 142, 155, 205, 207 Functional magnetic resonance imaging, 103, 112, 113 G GenScope Project, 204 Geographic information systems, 203 Geometry, 12, 45, 126, 158, 212 Geometry Tutor, 212 Global Lab, 197, 208 Grading practices, 134 H Hamlet, 34 Hawaiian children, 96, 123 Heuristic problem-solving strategy, 55-56 Hippocampus, 112 History, 120 curricula (existing), 124 dates-facts teaching method, 145, 146, 148-149 debating evidence, 149-151 experts, 26, 29-30, 35, 146 interpreting events, 146 teachers' differing views of, 146, 148-149 teaching, 145-152, 229-230 Holmes Group, 188 HumBio Project, 215 I Ideal student initiative, 88 Impetus theory, 58 Incremental theories, 90 Infant cognition active learning, 10 assessment methods, 67, 70-72 biological causality, 76 habituation paradigm, 71, 72, 73-74, 76, 79 language, 61, 79, 81, 92 memory, 71 non-nutritive sucking, 71 number concepts, 77, 79 physical concepts, 72-76 schema use, 75 social interactions and, 91 theories of, 67-70 transfer of learning, 75 visual expectation, 71, 75, 79 Inferencing processes, 112, 226

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Information processing theories, 68, 79, 83-84 Information systems design, 33-34 Initial learning. See also Preconceptions assessment of, 43, 44, 45 elements that promote, 41, 43-49 memorization and, 43-44, 45 monitoring and feedback, 46-48 motivation and, 48-49 tests of, 54 time allowed for, 44, 46 and transfer of learning, 39, 41, 43-49, 54, 56, 65, 191 understanding and, 43-44, 45 Inquiry-based instruction, 11-12, 56, 95, 98-99, 144-145, 205 Institute for Research on Learning, 201 Instruction abstract, 53-54 and brain development, 109-111 bridging strategy, 167, 168, 175 case-based, 50, 52 changes in methods, 120-121 coaching technique, 30, 56, 165-166, 168-170, 210-211 cognitively guided, 90-99, 126, 185, 228 conceptual change strategies, 167-168 direct or lecture forms, 59 fluency development, 32 inquiry-based, 11-12, 56, 95, 98-99, 144-145, 205, 216-217 interactive, 167-168, 170, 175, 197, 204, 207 in large classes, 170, 207 metacognitive approaches, 12, 55-56, 66, 128, 205 modeling, 55, 56, 173 pattern recognition, 32 problem-based, 50, 51, 52 progressive formalization, 125-126, 127 prompting technique, 54 scaffolding, 55, 56 strategic development and, 88-89 time, 46 video archives, 216-217 Instructional design, 30, 31, 126-127, 141 Intelligence. See also Multiple intelligences children's conceptions of, 70, 89-90 Internet, 197, 208, 212-214, 215-216 Inuits, 134 J Japanese classroom culture, 135 language development, 109-110 sushi experts, 33 Jasper Woodbury Problem Solving Series, 196, 197, 198-199, 204-205 K Kamehameha School, 123 KEEP program, 96 Kids as Global Scientists research project, 214, 216 Knowing, theory of, 11 Knowledge. See also Organization of knowledge access to, 9, 30-32, 37, 65 conditionalized, 30-32, 37, 47-48, 50, 185 content, 33 cultural, 60 environments for learning, 124-127, 141, 176, 182-183 expertise and, 4, 9, 24-32, 33, 36, 37, 113 facets, 169-170 pedagogical content, 33 pre-existing, 10-12, 57, 66 representations, 53-54, 66 see also Schemas retrieval fluency, 20-21, 32, 37 Knowledge Forum, 207 L Labeling, 92, 95 LabNet Project, 186, 215

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Language development and abstract thought, 67 adult-infant interactions, 61, 92 and brain development, 109-112, 115 context and, 82-83 cultural differences in, 97-98, 123-124 early, 4, 61, 79-83, 90, 100 eavesdropping and, 97-98 environments for learning and, 81-83 sign language, 110-111 situated, 82, 97 story-telling, 61, 93, 96 Learner centered environments, 121-124, 126, 141, 176, 180-182, 200 -201 Learning-oriented learners, 49 Learning theories, xii, xvi, 3, 14, 36, 39, 41, 51, 53, 119, 187, 191, 192 assessment linked to, 130-132 infants' capabilities, 67-70 Learning Through Collaborative Visualization (CoVis) Project, 200, 203, 209 Levin, James, 215-216 Literacy, changes in definition of, 120, 121 Little Planet Literacy Series, 202 Literature, teaching, 34 LOGO programming experiment, 41, 43, 48 M Math Their Way, 182 Mathematics, 120 algebra, 46, 51, 53, 125-126, 186, 201-202, 213 assessments, 129, 198-199 attitudes about, 198-199 calculus, 54 children's knowledge of, 12, 57, 59, 79, 80, 100, 125-126, 184, 228 -229 computer-based tools and scaffolds, 201-204, 213, 215, 217 contextualized reasoning, 62-64 counting-based arithmetic, 66, 86-87 curricula (existing), 125 experts, 21, 29, 38 fractions, 59, 60, 62, 79, 100 girls' participation in, 133 guided discussion, 156-158, 228 instruction time, 46 Jasper Woodbury series, 196, 197, 198-199 Math Their Way curriculum, 182 model-based reasoning, 158-159, 203, 228 multiplication, 153-154, 155 negative numbers, 154, 156 number concepts, 4, 79, 80, 100 PUMP curriculum, 213 real-world applications, 57, 62-64, 157, 159, 201-202, 213 software tools, 201-202 standards, 124 strategic activities, 86-87 teacher learning opportunities, 182, 183, 185, 186 teaching, 38, 50, 51, 55-56, 96, 125-126, 129, 152-159 transfer of competence, 53 video archives, 216-217 Mathematics in Context, 124 Mathematics Learning project, 215 Mathline, 186 Measures of learning, 39, 65, 66, 128. See also Assessments Medawar, Peter, 171 Medial frontal cortex, 106 Memorization, 8-9 assessments based on, 9, 128, 129, 140, 177 and transfer of learning, 43-44, 45, 47, 65, 228 Memory. See also Organization of knowledge; Retrieval of knowledge and brain processes, 112-114 children's capacity, 46, 83-84 declarative, 112 experiments, 22-23 false, 113

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infants, 71 procedural, 112 short-term, 21, 22-23, 46 strategies, 84-85 synaptic connections and, 105 Metacognition children's learning and, 35, 70, 85-86 defined, 12, 35 expertise and, 35-36, 38 instruction approaches, 12, 55-56, 66, 125, 128, 205 Methodologies, learning assessment graduated prompting, 54 infants, 67, 70-72 research recommendations, xxi, 237-238 think-aloud, 20, 172 standardized tests, 120 Microgenetic studies, 88 Microworlds, interactive computer, 204 Middle School Mathematics Through Application Projects, 201-202 Minds on Physics, 181, 182-183 Misconceptions, 66, 166-167, 173-174, 175 about brain development, 102 cultural, 139 science, 58, 167-168, 206, 217, 229 about teaching, 144, 151, 176 Model-based learning, 10, 51, 55-56, 154, 156, 158-159, 203, 228 Modeling, 55, 56 computational modeling research, 14 technology-based tools, 203, 204 Model-It, 204 Monitoring of learning, 46-47, 55-56, 66 Motivation to learn achievement/competence, 49, 90, 91, 200-201 behaviorism, 6 children's, 49, 65, 89-90, 100 competence, 48 computer technology and, 198-199, 200-201, 212, 215 learning orientation and, 49 performance orientation and, 49 social opportunities and, 49 Motor skills, 44, 53, 107, 109 Multiple-choice tests, 128 Multiple intelligences, 70, 89 Multiple strategies concept, 86-89 Multiplication, teaching, 153-154 N National Commission on Teaching and America's Future, 190 National Research Council, 126 National Science Foundation, 180 Navajos, 134 Neostriatum, 112 Nerve cells, 104, 114 Neural activity, 107-108, 115 Neuroimaging, 103, 112, 113 Non-self-directed learning, 90 Novices accomplished, 36 experts compared to, 19-38 Numbers early concepts, 4, 77-79, 80, 100 negative, 154-156 rational, 59, 60, 62, 79, 100 O Observational learning, 97, 134 Oral skills, oral tradition, 61, 93, 96 Organization of knowledge, 4 chunking/clustering technique, 20-21, 26, 40, 84-85 cognitive activity and, 131-132 conceptual, 9, 26, 30-32, 37, 169-170 experts, 4, 24-30, 33, 36, 37, 38, 44, 113, 124, 127, 143, 225-226 hierarchical structures, 161-165, 204 memory and, xi-xii in schemas, 21, 24, 26, 28, 47, 53-54 P Parallel distributed processing, 14 Pattern recognition, expertise and, 20-24, 32, 36, 38, 44

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Pause times, 26, 37 Pedagogical content knowledge, 33, 38, 143-144, 151-152, 154, 156, 176 action research, 187 teacher learning opportunities, 182, 187 Pedagogy generic, 182 theory of, 11 Perceptual learning, 48, 68 Performance-oriented learners, 49 Phenomenological primitives, 169 Philadelphia Teachers Learning Cooperative, 187 Phonemes, 109 Photosynthesis, 59-60 Physical causality, 90 Physical concepts, 72-76 children's competencies, 72-76, 90, 100 Physical models, 173 Physics, 11-12 assessments of understanding, 129, 130, 131 calculus and, 54 computer tools, 56, 204, 205, 206, 215 experts, 21, 25-26, 27, 159-160 hierarchical analyses, 160-161 Minds on Physics curriculum, 181, 182-183 misconceptions, 58, 167-168, 206 qualitative strategies, 159-160 teacher learning opportunities, 181, 182-183, 185, 187 teaching strategies, 160-170, 175 Physics Teacher Action Research Group, 187 Physics Teacher Resource Agent Project, 179 Piaget, Jean, 68, 73, 75 Plausibility judgments, 87 Portfolio assessment, 130, 208 Positron emission tomography, 103, 112 Practice and brain development, 110, 111, 113 enhanced normal, 187 importance of, 41, 83, 165-166 language, 83, 110 monitoring and feedback with, 46-47 time required for, 44, 46 Preconceptions, 10-12, 58-59, 124, 141, 206 Principled conceptual knowledge, 153-154 Prior knowledge, 10-11, 41, 42-43, 56-61, 66 Privileged domains, early competencies, 69-70, 72-83, 90, 100 Problem-based learning, 50, 65 Problem representations, 51, 153-154, 155, 226, 232 Problem solving collective, 55-56 expert's approach to, xii, 25-26, 27, 29, 31, 38, 44 heuristic, 55-56 hierarchical analysis, 161-165 human need for, 90, 91 trial and error, 6-8 workplace simulations, 197 Procedural facilitation strategy, 55 Professional development. See Teacher learning Progressive formalization, 125-126, 127 Project GLOBE, 200 Project Rightstart, 79, 88 Project SEED, 183 Project Zero, 186 Prompting, 54, 55 Pueblo Indian children, 97 PUMP curriculum, 213 Q Questions, questioning, question-asking, 11-12, 56, 95, 98-99, 144 -145, 205 QUILL network, 215 R Radical behaviorism, 8 Radiology experts, 21 Readiness to learn, 69

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Reading, 55, 87, 93-96, 120, 121, 217 Real-world learning computer technology and, 195-201, 213 mathematics, 57, 62-64, 157, 159, 196, 213 workplace simulations, 197 Reasoning abstract, 62, 66, 67 analogical, 50, 52, 53-54, 98 causal, 87 contextualized, 62-63, 66 generic, 170 model-based, 158-159, 173, 228 scientific, 87, 174-175 spatial, 87 strategies of children, 87, 126, 141 Reciprocal teaching, 55, 88, 93 Referential communications, 87, 94 Reflection, 12, 85-86, 191 Rehearsal activities, 84, 86, 87 Reminiscing, 96 Representations, 94 cognitive, 53, 132, 133 of concepts, 51, 53-54 virtual models, 203 Research, action, 187-188 Research on learning. See also Science of learning agenda, 235-236 focus, 5-6 recommendations, xix-xxiii, 236-240 Retrieval of knowledge chunking technique, 20-21, 26, 40 context of original learning and, 50 cueing, 86 expertise and, 20-21, 32, 37, 38, 44 practice, 86 schematic organization and, 54 S Scaffolding, 55, 56, 92, 96, 170, 201-204, 214 Schemas infant push-pull, 75 organization of knowledge in, 21, 24, 26, 28, 47, 53-54 Schools alignment of goals within, 140 as communities, 70, 212-214 transfer of learning to everyday life, 61-65, 66 transparent, 212 Science education, 120-121. See also Biology; Physics assessment of understanding, 131-132 Chèche Konnen approach, 171-172, 175, 229, 230 coaching technique, 168-170 computer tools, 202, 204, 217 conceptual change, 167-168, 172-174, 175, 217 curricula (existing), 124-125 foundations for, 237 girls' participation in, 133 interactive instruction in large classes, 170 language practices in, 123-124 public policy issues, 202 real-world learning approaches, 200-201, 202 research recommendations, xx-xxi, 237 scientific reasoning, 174-175 standards, 124 strategies, 126, 159-166 student-scientist partnerships, 197, 205 teacher learning opportunities, 181-182, 183 teaching, 159-175 for young and ''at risk" children, 126, 171-174 Science of learning active learning, 12-13 collaborations in, xxii, 238-239 development, 6-8 educational implications, 4-5, 13-14, 221 evolution of, 3-4, 14 methodological research, 237-238 pre-existing knowledge, 10-12

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research recommendations, xix-xx, xxii, 236-237 understanding, emphasis on, 8-9 Self-assessment, 12, 128 Self-directed learning, 56, 90 Self-regulation, 85-86, 226 Sense-making approaches, 12, 125, 147-149, 153, 171-172, 175, 186 Sesame Street, 139 Sherlock Project, 210-211 Situated learning, 15, 76, 82, 92, 95-96, 97, 100, 122, 187 SMART Challenge Series, 205, 207 Social interactions, 91, 172 and brain development, 107, 114 caregiver-child, 91-92, 100-101 Social opportunities, and motivations to learn, 49 Social studies, 4, 49, 145, 207 Software, educational, xix, 4, 56, 170, 195-201, 202, 203, 204, 207 -208, 209, 215 Spelling, 87 Spines, dendritic, 104 Standardized tests, 120, 128, 129, 138, 177, 198-199, 208 STELLA modeling environment, 204 Stereotyping, 133, 139 Story-telling, 61, 93, 96 Strategic competence, 170 assessment of, 85 children's, 70, 83, 84-86, 100 choosing strategies, 87-89 multiple strategies, 86-89 Stroke victims, 111, 223 Structural knowledge. See Organization of knowledge Student Conference on Global Warming, 200-201 Subject-matter (discipline) knowledge and effective teaching, 33, 38, 144, 145, 147, 149, 151-152, 154, 176 teacher learning opportunities, 183, 187, 190-191 Summarization strategy, 84 Summative assessments, 128, 129, 142, 177 SummerMath, 183 Synaptic connections, 104-106, 107-108, 110, 114 T Tabula rasa theory, 67, 68 Taking turns, 55 Teacher learning action research, 179, 187-188 assessment methods, 185-186 assessment-centered environments, 184-185 certification programs, 185 collaborative group work, 183, 185-187 community-centered environments, 185-187, 192, 215-217 computer technology and, 182, 183, 186, 214-217 environments for, 4, 180-187 feedback from colleagues, 184-185 inservice, 179, 192 knowledge-centered environments, 182-183, 186 learner-centered environments, 180-182 mentoring, 179, 181, 183, 216 opportunities for practicing teachers, 179-180, 192 paid time for, 188 preservice education, 188-191, 192, 216, 217 quality of opportunities, xviii, 180-187 recommendations, xxiii, 240 subject matter, 183, 187, 190-191 and transfer of learning, 191 workshops, 181-182, 192 Teacher Professional Development Institute (TAPPED IN), 216 Teaching. See also Instruction Chèche Konnen approach, 171-172, 175 cultural sensitivity in, 121-122, 123-124, 141 diagnostic, 122-123

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differential views of subject matter, 146 expert, xvii-xviii, 4, 21, 24, 25, 32-33, 34, 37-38, 143-145, 147-149, 176, 216-217, 228, 230-231 goals-practices relationship, 12-13 history, 145-152, 229-230 knowledge of individual learners, 156-158, 231 learner-centered, 121-122 left brain/right brain, 102 mathematics, 38, 152-159, 182, 228-229 memory processes and, 113 misconceptions about, 144, 151, 176 pedagogical content knowledge, xviii, 33, 38, 143-144, 151-152, 154 , 156, 176, 182, 230, 231 philosophical traditions of, 189 physics, 160-170, 175 reading, 55 reciprocal, 55, 88, 96 science, 159-175, 179, 181-183, 229, 230 subject-matter expertise, xviii, 144, 145, 147, 149, 151-152, 154, 176, 190-191, 230 by telling, 11, 59 written composition, 55 Technologies. See Computer technology Television, 70, 83, 137-139 Text-editor experiment, 53, 54 Theoretical problem description, 163-164 Theory of mind, 70, 89-90 ThinkerTools Inquiry Curriculum, 205 Third International Mathematics and Science Study, 30, 125 Thorndike, Edward L., 6-8 Time capsules, 147 Time on task, 44, 46, 65-66, 227 Time to learn, 44, 46, 65-66 Tools infant use of, 75-76 technology, 56, 62, 201-204 Transfer of learning, 4. See also Teaching active approaches, 54, 224 conceptual change and, 58-59, 225 conditions of transfer and, xiii, 4, 39, 41, 51-54 context of original learning and, xiii, 41, 50-51, 52, 66, 173, 224 cultural practices and, 4, 59-61, 66, 97-99 defined, 39 determinants of, 223-225, 227 feedback and, 47, 65, 66, flexible, 50-51, 52, 65, 66, 223, 224 by infants, 75 initial learning and, 39, 41, 43-49, 54, 56, 65, 191, 223-224 knowledge base and, 57, 66 measures of, 39, 65 memorization and, xiii-xiv, 39, 43-44, 45, 65 metacognition and, xiv, 55-56, 66 motivation and, 48-49, 65 near, 41 negative, 41, 42-43 passive approaches, 54 practice and, 41, 46-47 previous experiences and, 41, 42-43, 56-61, 66, 224-225 problem representations, 41, 51, 66 from school to everyday life, 61-65, 66 teacher role to students, 214-215 tests, 39 time necessary for, 44-46, 65-66, 224 understanding and, xiii-xiv, 6, 43-44, 45, 58-59, 65-66, 124, 224 Tutoring environments, 166, 209-212, 213 U Understanding assessment formats, 44, 129, 130, 131 conceptual change, 58-59 contrasting-cases concept, 48 feedback on, 47

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learning with, 6, 8-9, 124, 125-126, 127, 128, 168-169, 227 memorization contrasted, 43-44, 45, 47 negative numbers, 154-156 physical causality, 72-76 and problem solving, 29 and transfer of learning, 43-44, 45, 47-48, 58-59, 65-66, 124 U.S. Department of Education, 180, 221 usefulness of information, 49 V Video-based learning programs, 196-197, 216-217 Visible thinking, 70, 173-174, 208-209 Visual cortex, 104, 105, 106, 108, 109 Visual learning, 53, 203 Voyage of the Mimi, 196 Vygotsky, Lev, 10 W WEBCSILE, 215 Wisconsin Teacher Enhancement Program in Biology, 181-182 Woodrow Wilson Fellows, 179 Word problems, 31, 51, 157, 184 Writing, 55, 120, 183, 202, 210-211, 215 Wundt, Wilhelm, 6 Z Zone of proximal development, 68-69, 70, 96

Representative terms from entire chapter:

brain development