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Alabama
adequacy standard, 22, 23, 149, 175, 200
constitution, 169
context for reform, 157-158
legislative response, 200-201, 204
litigation, 22, 42, 149, 159, 167, 170, 175
politics of school finance reform, 157-160, 166, 167
property taxes, 159-160, 166
reforms, 73, 159-160, 200-201
spending, 163, 171
Alaska
cost of education, 229, 231, 245
litigation, 44, 212
reforms, 84
spending on education, 212
Analysis of school finance equity
alternative groups of special interest, 12
child perspectives, 10-11, 24
conceptual distinctions, 9-13
ex ante and ex post concepts, 12-13
inputs, 11-12, 24
methodology, 103-104
outcomes, 11-12
outputs, 11-12, 24
processes, 11-12
taxpayer perspectives, 10-11, 24
units of analysis, 11, 15, 17, 20, 22, 24
Arizona
legislative response, 204
litigation, 42, 175, 197
reforms, 73, 204
Arkansas
litigation, 42, 56, 69
reforms, 73
Assessment. See Student outcome assessments
Atlas Communities, 230
Audrey Cohen College System, 230
B
Barro index, 84-85
Benefit principle, 10
Block grants, 61-62, 237, 238, 246
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 250
C
California
definition of equality, 75, 144
impact of reforms, 49-50, 63, 74-75, 90-92, 93, 101, 186
litigation, 3, 8, 39, 42, 47, 48-50, 56, 69, 72, 74, 75, 81, 82, 91, 92, 93, 95, 143, 145, 169, 170, 183, 185, 212
private school enrollments, 92-93
Proposition13, 3, 49, 74, 75, 81, 94, 169, 170, 185-186
reforms, 49, 73, 146, 169
spending on education, 74-75, 81, 82, 93, 95, 101, 169, 170, 211, 212
student performance, 90-91
teacher salaries, 102
voluntary donations to local schools, 91-92
Cases. See Court cases
Categorical grants, 101, 104, 130, 234, 235, 236, 239-241
Center for Education Policy Analysis--New Jersey, 103
Chambers' Teachers' Cost Index, 84-85
Charter schools, 27, 153, 164
Child/student equity, 10, 11, 28
Christian Coalition, 158, 159
Civil Rights Act of 1964, 14, 177-178
Class size, 234, 238-241.
See also Teacher/pupil ratios
Coefficient of variation, 19, 76, 85, 110-111, 114
Colorado
cost of education, 212, 249
litigation, 45, 212
Concepts. See Equity concepts
Co-NECT, 230
Connecticut
litigation, 42, 67, 69, 212
reforms, 73, 80-81
spending on education, 80-81, 212
Consistency Management and Cooperative Discipline (CMCD), 230
Consortium for Policy Research in Education, 103
Consumer Price Survey, 247
Contracting for services, 153
Core Knowledge Curriculum, 230
Cost functions, 21, 29
Cost indexes, education, 221
adjusted input prices, 270-271
Barro index, 84-85
calculation, 269-282
Chambers' Teachers' Cost Index, 29, 84-85
comparison of, 277-282
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conceptual foundation of, 261-269
cost functions converted to, 21, 29
cost-of-living, 84-85, 95, 226, 247-249
cross-sectional, 94, 95, 247, 282
defined, 261, 263, 273-274
direct controls for performance, 273-277, 281, 283, 287
efficiency controls, 29, 263, 274-277, 278-281, 282, 283, 285-286, 287, 288, 289-291, 293, 294
environmental factors, 266-269, 270, 271, 277-278, 280-281, 282, 289, 292-293
in foundation formulas, 282-291
geographic, 220, 246-249, 255
indirect controls for performance, 271-273, 277, 281, 283
inflation adjustments, 249-251
input prices, 266, 269-271, 277, 279-280, 283, 289
McMahon and Chang's Cost of Living Index, 21, 84-85
performance standards and, 262-264
proxy for at-risk children, 222, 227-228
purpose of, 265-266
weighted students, 21, 29, 57, 104, 148, 168-169, 184, 261, 271, 281, 283
Cost of education.
See also Formulas for distributing funds;
Spending on education
economic definition, 21
empirical models, 192, 206, 216, 218, 223, 224-228, 254-255
professional judgment model, 191-192, 201, 206, 218, 222, 223, 225 , 232-241
public perceptions of, 152
statistical models, 192-193, 206, 216, 219-224, 229-230, 231, 232, 254
student characteristics and, 226-227
teacher salaries, 222, 238, 239-241, 242-245, 246-247, 269-270, 279 , 281, 282
in urban districts, 148, 184
voter preference-tax price methodology, 222, 231, 254
Court cases
Abbott v. Burke, 17, 22, 42, 104, 115, 151, 163, 164, 165, 201, 203 , 254
Alabama Coalition for Equity v. Hunt, 59, 196
Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell, 187
Brigham v. Vermont, 42, 61
Brown v. Board of Education, 14, 26, 40-41, 176, 177-178, 179, 181 , 187, 205
Burrus v. Wilkerson, 37
Campaign for Fiscal Equity v. State of New York, 45, 68, 197
Campbell County v. Wyoming, 198, 215, 218, 231
City of Pawtucket v. Sandlun, 44, 68, 199
Claremont School District v. Gregg, 42, 68, 196
Claremont v. Governor of New Hampshire, 193
Coalition for Adequacy v. Chiles, 44, 68, 199
Committee for Educational Equality v. Missouri, 42, 170
Committee for Educational Rights v. Edgar, 45, 60, 199
Cummings v. Board of Education, 176
Danson v. Casey, 45, 54
DeRolph v. Ohio, 42, 62, 197
Dupree v. Alma School District No. 30, 42, 67
Edgewood v. Kirby, 42, 56, 67, 104, 160, 161, 170
Freeman v. Pitts, 187
Green v. County School Board, 178
Griffin v. Illinois, 182
Harper v. Hunt, 22, 42, 159, 160, 170
Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections, 182
Hornbeck v. Somerset County Board of Education, 45, 67
Horton v. Meskill, 42, 67
Kadrmas v. Dickinson Public Schools, 182
Keyes v. School District No.1, 178
Kukor v. Grover, 45, 68
Leandro v. North Carolina, 42, 68, 193
Levittown, 17
McDuffy v. Secretary of Education, 42, 59, 196
McInnis v. Shapiro, 37
McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents, 177
Milliken v. Bradley, 178, 187
Minneapolis NAACP v. Minnesota, 199
Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada, 176-177
Missouri v. Jenkins, 66, 187
Olsen v. Oregon, 45, 54
Pauley v. Kelly, 43, 52, 194, 215, 220
Pierce v. Society of Sisters, 238
Plessy v. Ferguson, 176
Plyler v. Doe, 40, 182
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Robinson v. Cahill, 22, 42, 50, 72, 145, 163, 193
Rodriguez v. San Antonio Independent School District, 39-40, 41, 43, 48, 50, 53, 54, 55, 56, 66, 72, 146, 170, 182, 183
Roosevelt Elementary School District v. Bishop, 42, 68, 197
Rose v. Council for Better Education, 29, 42, 58, 90, 104, 149, 155 , 157, 193, 195, 215
School Administration District #1 v. Commissioner of Education, State of Maine, 68
Scott v. Virginia, 44, 68
Seattle v. State of Washington, 43, 52, 193-194
Serrano v. Priest, 3, 8, 39, 42, 47-50, 54, 72, 74, 75, 77, 81, 82 , 84, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95, 143, 145, 169, 170, 183
Shapiro v. Thompson, 182
Skeen v. Minnesota, 45, 68
St. Paul School District v. Minnesota, 199
Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education, 178
Sweatt v. Painter, 177
Tennessee Small School Systems v. McWherter, 42, 67, 68, 197
Thompson v. Engelking, 44, 53
Van Dusartz v. Hatfield, 66
Washakie v. Herschler, 43, 60, 198
D
Data availability issue, 11, 24-25
Data Envelopment Analysis, 29, 275, 293
Demographics of school finance
impacts of reforms, 87-88
politics and, 139, 153-154
Desegregation, school, 36, 66, 143, 177-179, 187-188, 205
District power equalization, 17, 38, 46, 49, 50, 57, 81, 83, 94, 184-185
see also Guaranteed tax base
District response to reforms.
See also Local school districts;
Resource allocation, reform-related
decision-making models, 100, 102-103, 113
expenditure models, 100, 101-102, 128
incentives for spending, 111
institutional theory, 128
intergovernmental grant theory, 103
methodology for assessing, 103-104
models of, 100-103
perceptions of funding stability and, 128-129
required local effort, 105-106
E
Eagle Forum, 158
Econometric studies, 75-82, 86-87, 152, 223
Edison Project, 207, 230
Education Commission of the States, 144, 169
Education Finance and Management program, 144
Education for All Handicapped Children Act, 26
Education production, 11-12
functions, 15-16, 25, 83
Education reform, 129-130, 146-147
Education standards, 59, 64, 186-187, 206. See Performance standards
Efficiency
controls, 29, 263, 274-277, 278-281, 282, 283, 285-286, 287, 288, 289-291, 293, 294
definition of, 228
Elementary and Secondary Education Act, 26
Environmental factors.
See also Special-needs students;
Urban school districts;
Weights/weighting standards
and academic performance, 15, 28, 226-227, 266-269, 271-273
cost adjustments, 266-269, 270, 271
Equal opportunity, 22, 64, 166
concepts of equity, 8, 13-16, 24, 50
ex ante and ex post definitions, 13-14
income disparity and, 15
individual characteristics and, 15
issues, 2
legal concepts, 14
measures of, 111
minimum-attainment definition, 16
movement, 143-144
per-pupil expenditures and, 16, 35-36, 149
political issues, 151, 163
resource/achievement controversy, 14-15
Equal protection
concept, 14
litigation based on, 35-36, 43, 48, 54, 55, 56, 61, 66-67
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Equality of Educational Opportunity (Coleman Report), 14-15, 27, 35, 267
Equity concepts
adequacy distinguished from, 12, 22-24, 179-180
analyzing, see Analysis of school finance equity
child/student perspective, 10, 11, 21, 24
equal opportunity, 8, 13-16
future trends, 24-26, 214
horizontal equity, 18-20
taxpayer perspective, 10-11
value decisions, 26, 222
vertical equity, 20-21
wealth neutrality, 14, 16-18
Ex ante concepts, 12, 13, 17
Ex post
concepts, 12-14, 22
horizontal equity, 18-19
wealth neutrality, 17-18, 28
Expeditionary Learning program, 230
Extended school services, 104, 119, 124-126
F
Facilities, school, 124-125, 126
Federal government
litigation, see Court cases;
U.S. Constitution
share of funding, 8, 9, 76, 146-147, 236-237
student-level surveys, 25
use of aid from, 9
Federal range ratio, 19, 110, 114
Finance distribution arrangements. See Formulas for distributing funds
Fiscal neutrality. See Wealth neutrality
Florida
impact of reforms, 82
litigation, 44, 60, 175, 199
politics, 142-143
Formulas for distributing funds
centralized, 82-83, 84
cost indexes in, 282-291
design considerations, 9, 146, 216, 218-232
district power equalizing (DPE), 17-18, 28, 38, 46-47, 49, 50-51, 81, 83, 94, 184-184
district response to, 9-10, 104
ex ante concepts, 12, 13, 17
ex post concepts, 12-13
expenditure-based, 287, 288-289
foundation, 104, 105-106, 107, 112, 132, 168, 190-191, 200, 211, 214, 225-226, 282-291
guaranteed tax base (GTB), 17, 28, 104, 105, 106-107, 132
key components, 104, 106-107
percentage equalizing funding system, 28
performance-based, 286-291
two-tier systems, 57
weights/weighting students, 21, 29, 57, 104, 148, 168-169, 261, 271
Foundation aid, 83, 91-92, 185
Free rider problem, 92
Fundamental interest, education as, 36, 39, 43, 48, 55, 181
G
Georgia, litigation, 44
Gini coefficient, 19, 27, 76, 110-111, 114
Goals 2000, 159
Guaranteed tax base, 17, 81, 94, 104, 105, 133
see also District power of equalization
H
Horizontal equity
children's concept, 18-20, 29
litigation based on, 35-36
measures of, 19-20
price adjustments in, 29
research on, 19-20
I
Idaho, litigation, 44, 53
Illinois, 37
adequacy standard, 226, 228, 255
Commission on Education Funding, 225
constitution, 66
cost of education, 225-226, 229, 231, 255
Goals Assessment Program, 226
impact of reforms, 82
litigation, 45, 60, 175, 199, 212
spending for education, 212
Impacts of reforms, 8.
See also State aid changes
on black students, 89-90
California case, 49-50, 74-75
cost-of-living adjustments, 84-86
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econometric studies, 75-82, 86-89, 152
educational outcomes, 65, 90-91, 93, 100
evidence of, 65, 74-84
on horizontal equity, 20
on income, 82-84
on litigation, 59
on low-house-income districts, 86-89
peer group effects, 82
price-of-education perspective, 80-82
private school enrollments, 92-93
on real resources, see Resource allocation, reform-related
research needs on, 127, 130-132
on revenues, 68, 75-76, 77, 78-82, 86-89, 104-112
simulation models, 82-84
on spending on education, 4, 49-50, 74-78, 93, 212-213
voluntary contributions, 91-92, 95
years after reform and, 87-88, 89
Income
redistribution programs, 15
spending on education and, 82-84, 86-89, 253-254, 280
Indiana, litigation, 46
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 21
Inputs into education, 11-12.
See also Spending on education
and ability to pay, 17
access to, 14
horizontal equity applied to, 18-19
and performance, 25
price indexes, 266, 269-271
race-based litigation, 177
Instruction.
See also Cost of education
decision making, 237-238
components, 224, 228-232
model program, 224
resource allocation for, 101, 115, 119, 120, 233-238, 239-240
Interest groups, 142, 143, 144-145, 153, 157, 158, 164, 165, 167
Intergovernmental grant theory, 100, 101
International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement , 251
K
Kansas
litigation, 44
reforms, 73, 94
spending on education, 213
Kentucky
adequacy standard, 22, 23, 58, 62, 64, 68, 167, 175, 195, 196, 198 , 200-201, 203, 206, 215, 216
constitution, 155
context for reforms, 156-157
district response to reforms, 103, 104, 128
education reform, 129
impacts of reforms, 90, 104-112, 156, 200-201
litigation, 42, 58-59, 69, 90, 104, 149, 155, 167, 195, 196, 198, 203, 206, 212, 215
politics of school finance reform, 155-157, 166, 167, 200
Pritchard Committee for Academic Excellence, 157, 159, 167
reforms, 59, 64, 73, 90, 104, 106-107, 112, 128, 133, 149, 156, 200
resource allocation changes, 112, 114-115, 116, 121-122, 124, 126 -127, 128, 163, 195, 230
revenue changes, 104-112, 156
spending on education, 212
L
Legislation, federal.
See also specific statutes
significant years for, 26
vertical-equity-based, 21
Legislation, state
achievement of equity through, 4
politics of, 142-143, 144, 145, 147, 156, 159
responsiveness to court-mandated reforms, 49, 50-51, 56, 63-64
Leveling-up issue, 111, 138-139, 145, 150, 161, 186
Litigation, school finance.
See also Court cases;
State court litigation;
U.S. Supreme Court litigation
character of, 34-35
future of, 63-65
geographic uniformity principle, 36, 38, 180, 185
horizontal equity principle, 35-36
importance to reform, 166-167
origins and evolution, 34-41
vertical equity (needs-based) challenge, 37, 38, 64-65
wealth-based discrimination, 37-41, 181-182
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Local control issue, 138, 151, 164, 198-199
Local school districts.
See also District response to reforms
consolidation of, 161, 164
cost functions, 21, 239-241
enrollments, 293
horizontal equity, 19-20
impact of reforms, 78-80, 84-86
inter-district equity, 21, 180
intra-district equity, 11, 65, 180
low-household-income districts, 84, 86-89
measures of equity between, 111
revenues, 78-80, 104-112
role in finance, 1, 8
spending, 76
as unit of analysis, 11, 20, 22, 25
vertical equity, 20-21, 29, 58
Louisiana, litigation, 46, 175
M
Maine, litigation, 44, 60
Maryland, litigation, 45, 55-56, 67
Massachusetts, 28
constitution, 66
cost of education, 212, 289, 292
litigation, 42, 59, 175, 212
reforms, 73, 146, 149
McLoone index, 19, 111, 114
McMahon and Chang's Cost of Living Index, 21, 84-85
Measures of inequality
coefficient of variation, 19, 76, 85, 110-111, 114
federal range ratio, 19, 110, 114
Gini coefficient, 19, 27, 76, 110-111, 114
McLoone index, 19, 111, 114
95/5 ratio, 76, 77, 85, 110, 144, 170
restricted range, 110, 114
simple correlation, 111, 114
test scores, 83
Theil index, 19-20, 76-77, 78, 85, 86, 95
Michigan
cost of education, 212, 278
equity analyses, 19, 21
litigation, 44, 212
politics, 142-143
reforms, 74, 146
Minnesota
constitution, 66
impact of reforms, 82
litigation, 45, 50, 55-56, 60, 175, 199, 212
politics, 142-143
spending on education, 212
Mississippi
constitution, 169
cost of education, 226, 255
spending on education, 213
Missouri
litigation, 42, 170, 176-177, 213
reform, 43, 66
spending on education, 213
Modern Red Schoolhouse, 230
Montana
litigation, 42, 69, 212
reforms, 73, 145
spending on education, 212
N
A Nation at Risk, 21-22, 146, 147, 186
National Academy of Education, 253
National Alliance for Restructuring Education, 230
National Assessment Governing Board, 253
National Center for Education Statistics, 19, 86, 95, 154
Common Core of Data, 25
National Commission on Excellence in Education, 147
National Conference of State Legislators, 144
National Educational Longitudinal Survey, 91
National Governors' Association, 159
National Longitudinal Survey of the High School Class of 1972, 90-91
National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 84
National reform network, 144-145
Nebraska, litigation, 44
New American Schools, 230
New Hampshire
litigation, 42, 175, 196-197, 199, 212
reforms, 73, 148
spending on education, 212
New Jersey
adequacy standard, 22, 175, 193, 195, 202-204, 206, 254
constitution, 66, 73
district response to reforms, 103, 104, 129
education reform, 129
enforcement of reforms, 145, 163
Hands Across New Jersey, 164
impact of reforms, 82, 99, 104-112, 113
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legislation, 164, 201-203, 204
litigation, 22, 42, 47, 50-51, 53, 57, 69, 104, 145, 151, 163, 164 , 175, 195, 206, 212, 254
politics of school finance reform, 145, 151-152, 163-165, 166
reforms, 50-51, 73, 104, 106-107, 113, 129, 164, 201, 203-204
resource allocation changes, 99, 101, 102, 115-119, 121, 123, 125, 126-127, 129, 163
revenue changes, 104-112, 113
spending levels, 64, 148, 201, 212
New Mexico, litigation, 46, 213
New York City, 20, 91, 192, 221, 223, 227, 275-282, 294
New York State
costs of education, 220, 221, 223, 255, 271, 275-282, 283, 287, 292 , 293-294
equity analyses, 19, 21, 192
Extraordinary Needs Aid program, 271
impact of reforms, 82
litigation, 45, 55-56, 175, 197, 21
Pupil Evaluation Program, 265
resource allocation changes, 101
spending on education, 212
North Carolina, litigation, 42, 55-56, 175, 197-198, 199, 212
North Dakota, litigation, 44, 212
O
Ohio
adequacy standard, 228
cost of education, 224, 225, 255
litigation, 42, 53, 62, 175, 197, 212
reforms, 29, 73, 84
spending on education, 212
Oklahoma
adequacy standard, 23
impact of reforms, 82
litigation, 44
reform, 43
Oregon, 146
litigation, 45, 53, 54
Outcomes, educational, 12-13
adequacy standard and, 58, 200, 251-253
assessment of, 131
dropout rates, 83-84, 90, 225, 264, 273
equal opportunity and, 14, 15
impacts of reforms on, 90-91, 93
income disparities and, 15
indirect controls for, 221
measures of, 83-84, 200, 220-221, 225, 226, 227-228, 232, 253, 264 , 273
monitoring, 51, 65
pupil/teacher ratios and, 233-234
resource allocation and, 25, 90-91, 131
shift in focus to, 22, 53, 176
spending and, 83-84, 90-91, 152, 283-284
student characteristics and, 15, 28, 226-227
tax prices and, 272-273, 274
test scores, 83-84, 90-91, 152, 187, 220, 222, 226-227, 264, 267, 273
Outputs of education.
See also Academic performance;
Outcomes, educational
horizontal equity applied to, 18
minimum vs. relative, 24
vertical equity applied to, 20
Outward Bound, 230
P
Peer effects, 82, 83
Pennsylvania, litigation, 45, 53, 54-55, 175
Per pupil expenditures. See Spending on Education
Performance standards. See Academic performance;
Education standards;
Student outcome assessments
cost indexes and, 262-264
court ordered, 260
criterion-references, 253
cutoff points, 256
educational adequacy and, 59
external influences, 260-261, 265-266
movement, 186-187
national testing, 206
norm-referenced, 252-253
reform linked to, 1-2, 59, 260
school district, 274
and spending for education, 126
Politics of school finance, 61.
See also individual states
and analysis of school finance equity, 11
anti-government/anti-tax sentiment and, 152-153, 157, 158, 159-160, 161, 164, 165-166
demographics and, 139, 153-154, 160
education excellence and, 146-147, 157
and enforcement of reforms, 145, 163
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executive branch, 141, 142-143, 144, 145, 147, 156-157, 165, 167, 200
fiscal context, 140, 145-147, 150, 158, 161, 166, 167
formulas for funding, 190-191
history, 142-154
incentives for involvement in reforms, 139-142, 143, 155, 166, 168
interest groups, 142, 143, 144-145, 153, 157, 158, 164, 165, 167
issues, 137-139, 150-163
judicial branch, 141-142, 149-150, 165, 166, 183
legislative branch, 140, 142-143, 144, 145, 147, 156, 159, 167
leveling-up issue, 111, 138-139, 145, 150, 161, 185
local control issue, 138, 151, 164
racial prejudice, 152-153, 154, 160, 162, 164-165, 166, 167
resource allocation, 152, 163
and spending, 143, 145-146, 148, 150, 152, 163
tax increases and, 138, 140, 145-146, 151-152, 156, 159
Private management of schools, 153
Private schools, 92-93, 238, 268-269
Private Wealth and Public Education, 17, 181
Production. See Education production
Property taxes, 65
bases, 80, 81, 133
benefit principle and, 10
caps, 49-50, 57, 146, 170
compensation for inequalities, 8, 145-146
education tax, 62, 110
equity issues, 1, 8, 138
political considerations, 145-146, 151-152
rates, 49-50, 94, 104, 105, 107-109, 111, 145-146
relief, 87, 99, 101, 103, 105, 145-146, 162-163, 164
Public school system, structural changes, 25
R
Race, spending on education by, 89-90
Racial discrimination, 14, 40-41, 176-179, 181, 187-188
Racial integration, 199
Racial prejudice, 152-153, 154, 160, 165, 166, 167
Rational basis test, 55, 67
Reapportionment cases, 36
Research
on educational adequacy, 23
on horizontal equity, 19-20
on resource allocation, 130-132
wealth neutrality concept used in, 18
Resource allocation, reform-related.
See also Spending on education
and academic performance, 7, 9, 14-15, 25, 152
for administration, 101, 115, 120, 121, 239-241, 245
for capital outlay, 115-119, 121
categorical grants, 101, 104, 130, 234, 235, 236, 239-241
decision-making models, 102-103, 113, 127, 128, 129-130, 131
design considerations, 216, 221
direct educational expense, 115-119
and educational outcomes, 25, 90-91
for extended school services, 104, 119, 124-126, 126, 130
for facilities, 124-125, 126, 127, 129
for fixed costs, 115, 121
for instruction, 101, 115, 119, 120, 233-238, 239-240
models, 100-103
operations and maintenance, 115-119, 120
public trust issue, 152
research needs on, 130-132
for special needs students, 104, 110, 119, 120, 124-125, 126, 148, 235-237, 246
for staff development, 121, 122-123, 126, 235, 239-241
standards-driven, 129-130
for supplies and equipment, 101, 124-125, 126, 128, 245
for tax relief, 87, 99, 101, 103, 105, 106, 145-146
for teacher/staff salaries, 52, 85, 99, 101, 102, 103, 121, 122-123, 126, 130, 238, 239-241, 242-245, 246
transportation, 115-119
trends, 84-86, 93, 127-129
tuition for out-of-district placements, 115-119
unrestricted general aid, 101
urban districts, 99, 119
vertical equity, 20
Restricted range statistic, 110, 114
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Revenue for school finance.
See also Property taxes
impacts of reforms on, 75-76, 77, 78-80, 85-86, 87, 89-90, 104-112
per-pupil, 4, 78-80, 86, 89-90, 108-109
recapture, 57, 94, 104, 161-162
required local effort, 105-106
sources, 9, 72, 77, 87, 108-109, 148, 150, 166
Rhode Island, litigation, 44, 60, 175, 199, 231
Roots and Wings, 230
S
SAT scores, 90, 91, 152, 222
School-based decision making, 11, 27, 207
School choice, 64, 94, 153, 164, 207, 222
School Development Program, 230
School finance equity. See Equity concepts
School-level analysis, 18-19, 24, 292
School size considerations, 234-235
Separation-of-powers concerns, 53, 201
South Carolina, litigation, 45, 175
South Dakota, litigation, 46
Special-needs students, 66, 104, 110, 119, 120, 124-125, 126, 148, 153, 168-169, 201, 205, 235-237, 246, 271, 293
Spending on education.
See also Resource allocation, reform-related
ability to pay and, 86-89
between-state, 4, 75, 76, 77, 85
caps on, 146, 150
cost-of-living adjustments, 84-86
decision making, 8-9
determinants of, 74
efficiency of, 131-132
and equal opportunity, 16, 35-36, 150
impact of reforms, 4, 49-50, 74-78, 84-93, 110, 211
incentives for, 107, 111
measures of inequality, 76-77, 83, 110-111
models, 101-102
and outcomes of education, 83-84, 90-91, 152, 283-284
patterns, 127, 143, 163-164, 211, 212-213
per pupil, 8-9, 16, 35-36, 49-50, 61, 75, 76, 78-80, 88, 89, 118, 146, 148, 150, 152, 163, 180
and quality of education, 152
by race, 89-90
substitution effects, 80
within-state, 4, 75, 76, 77-78, 85
Staff development, 121, 122-123, 235, 239-241
State aid changes.
See also Formulas for distributing funds
district response to, 100-103, 105-109
see also Resource allocation, reform-related
intergovernmental grant theory, 101
per-pupil aid, 78-80, 88, 105
policy implications, 127-130
and price of education, 80-82
research implications, 130-132
and school district revenues, 109-112
trends, 105
State court litigation.
See also Court cases;
Impacts of reforms;
individual states
education clauses, 35, 43, 44, 46, 50, 52, 54, 55, 56, 58, 60, 66, 67, 73, 149, 189-190
educational adequacy claim, 22, 47, 51-52, 55-56, 59-60, 62, 63-64, 65, 68, 175, 183, 188-193
equal protection challenges, 35-36, 43, 48, 50, 54, 55, 56, 61, 66 -67, 72-73, 143-144, 149, 183, 199
equity cases, 65, 68, 179-180, 182-183, 190
fiscal neutrality standard (Coons Proposition I), 46, 47, 48, 50-51, 54, 55, 56-57, 61, 62, 63-65, 66, 67, 144, 146, 149, 175, 181-182, 184-185, 205
history, 8, 47-62, 149-150
legislative responses to, 56-57, 60-61, 62, 63-64, 144, 198, 199-205
overview, 41-47, 59-60
results, 35, 41-46, 47-48, 53-55, 56, 59-60, 68, 69, 72, 144, 146, 149, 175
separation-of-powers concerns, 53, 201
status of, 72, 73
vertical equity cases, 54-55, 63, 64-65
wealth discrimination, 38-41, 183-188, 190
States.
See also individual states
constitutional requirements for free public schools, 169
with court-ordered reforms, 73
role in financing, 1, 8, 9
spending on education, 212-213
as unit of analysis, 11, 20
Strict scrutiny test, 40
Student outcome assessments, 51, 59, 61, 62, 190, 218, 239-241
OCR for page 315
Success for All, 23, 230
Supplies and equipment, 101, 124-125, 126, 239-241, 245
Suspect classification, wealth as, 39, 43
T
Tax burdens, 10, 27, 285
Tax prices, 82, 272-273, 274
Tax relief, 87, 99, 101, 103, 105, 145-146, 151, 162-163, 164
Taxpayer equity, 10-11, 27, 28, 29
Taxpayer support for reforms, 129, 138-139
Teacher/staff
costs, 221, 222
quality of, 243-244, 246, 292
salaries, 52, 85, 99, 101, 102, 103, 121, 122-123, 219, 222, 238, 239-241, 242-245, 246-247, 269-270, 273, 279, 281, 282, 283, 292
Teacher/pupil ratios, 84, 102, 233-234, 246
Teachers unions, 142, 143, 242
Tennessee
litigation, 42, 67, 175, 197, 212
reforms, 73
spending on education, 212
Test scores, 83-84, 90-91, 152, 187, 220, 222, 226-227, 264, 267
Texas
Assessment of Academic Skills, 227, 228
district response to reforms, 103, 104, 129
education reform, 129
impact of reforms, 82, 104-112, 113
litigation, 39-40, 42, 50, 56-57, 69, 104, 146, 160, 161, 177, 183 , 205, 212
politics of school finance, 160-163, 166
racial discrimination, 177, 205
reforms, 57, 73, 104, 106-107, 113, 129, 160-161, 162
resource allocation changes, 84, 112-113, 119, 120, 121, 123, 125, 126-127, 129
revenue changes, 104-112, 113
spending on education, 212
Theil index, 19-20, 76-77, 78, 85, 86
Third International Mathematics and Science Study, 251, 252
Title I funding, 21, 236-237
U
Urban school districts, 54, 99, 119, 140, 147-148, 153-154, 163-164, 183-184, 187-188, 190, 192, 201, 202, 207, 219
U.S. Constitution
Fourteenth Amendment, 17, 35, 48, 176, 178, 183, 214.
See also Equal protection
U.S. Supreme Court litigation, 12, 35-41
geographic uniformity principle, 36, 180-181
horizontal equity challenges, 35-36
racial discrimination, 14, 26, 40-46, 176, 181
results, 34, 72
vertical equity (needs-based) claims, 36-37
Utah, reforms, 74, 82, 145
V
Variance decomposition, 76
Vermont
litigation, 42, 61, 65, 183
reforms, 61-62, 73
Vertical equity, 20-21, 23, 24, 29
litigation based on, 36-37, 54-55
Virginia, litigation, 37, 44, 60
Voucher programs, 153, 164
W
Washington
constitution, 194
impacts of reforms, 148
litigation, 43, 47, 52, 53, 69, 193-194
reforms, 73
Wealth as a suspect classification, 39, 43
Wealth neutrality, 27, 63
concept in school finance equity, 16-18, 24, 28
equal opportunity and, 14
federal litigation, 37-39, 66
measures of, 17-18, 28, 111-112
research, 18
shift away from, 183-188
state litigation based on, 46, 47, 48, 50-51, 54, 55, 56-57, 61,63, 67, 144, 146, 149, 175, 181-182, 183, 205
unit of analysis, 17
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