Index
A
Ability to pay principle, 10, 17, 27, 86-89
Academic performance.
See also Outcomes, educational;
Performance standards
assessment of, 59, 61, 62, 253, 264-265
class size and, 234
environmental factors, 266-269, 271-273
foundation program formulas and, 261
gaps, 289
resource allocation and, 7, 9, 14-15, 25, 152, 234, 266
school, 221
school district, 221, 266-269, 274
Accountability systems, 59, 159, 192, 200
Adequacy, educational
assigning costs to, 238, 242-246
concept, 2, 12, 21-24, 58, 179-180, 188-189, 209, 211, 214
costs of, 23
court definitions of, 58, 59, 68, 193-199, 215-216, 217
definitional challenges, 214-232
early legal thinking, 179-182
emergence of movement, 2, 3, 175-176, 188-189
empirical models of, 192, 206, 216, 218, 223, 224-228, 254-255
equity and, 22-24, 27, 63-64, 204, 209
formulas for distributing funds, 211
future of, 205-207
historical context, 211
individual district circumstances and, 246-251
learning objectives, 215-232
legal standard, 2, 23, 24, 25, 189-193
litigation, 22, 47, 51-52, 55-56, 58, 59-60, 63, 65, 175, 188-199, 211, 212-213
and local control issue, 198-199
and outcomes, 58, 200-201, 251-254
professional judgment model, 191-192, 201, 206, 218, 222, 223, 225 , 232-241
quantification, 22, 25, 188-189
see also Performance standards
race-based litigation and, 176-179
research, 23
statistical models of, 192-193, 206, 216, 219-224, 229-230, 231, 232, 254
vertical equity as, 23
Alabama
adequacy standard, 22, 23, 149, 175, 200
constitution, 169
context for reform, 157-158
legislative response, 200-201, 204
litigation, 22, 42, 149, 159, 167, 170, 175
politics of school finance reform, 157-160, 166, 167
Alaska
cost of education, 229, 231, 245
reforms, 84
spending on education, 212
Analysis of school finance equity
alternative groups of special interest, 12
conceptual distinctions, 9-13
ex ante and ex post concepts, 12-13
methodology, 103-104
outcomes, 11-12
processes, 11-12
taxpayer perspectives, 10-11, 24
units of analysis, 11, 15, 17, 20, 22, 24
Arizona
legislative response, 204
Arkansas
reforms, 73
Assessment. See Student outcome assessments
Atlas Communities, 230
Audrey Cohen College System, 230
B
Barro index, 84-85
Benefit principle, 10
Block grants, 61-62, 237, 238, 246
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 250
C
California
definition of equality, 75, 144
impact of reforms, 49-50, 63, 74-75, 90-92, 93, 101, 186
litigation, 3, 8, 39, 42, 47, 48-50, 56, 69, 72, 74, 75, 81, 82, 91, 92, 93, 95, 143, 145, 169, 170, 183, 185, 212
private school enrollments, 92-93
Proposition13, 3, 49, 74, 75, 81, 94, 169, 170, 185-186
spending on education, 74-75, 81, 82, 93, 95, 101, 169, 170, 211, 212
student performance, 90-91
teacher salaries, 102
voluntary donations to local schools, 91-92
Cases. See Court cases
Categorical grants, 101, 104, 130, 234, 235, 236, 239-241
Center for Education Policy Analysis--New Jersey, 103
Chambers' Teachers' Cost Index, 84-85
Child/student equity, 10, 11, 28
Civil Rights Act of 1964, 14, 177-178
See also Teacher/pupil ratios
Coefficient of variation, 19, 76, 85, 110-111, 114
Colorado
Concepts. See Equity concepts
Co-NECT, 230
Connecticut
spending on education, 80-81, 212
Consistency Management and Cooperative Discipline (CMCD), 230
Consortium for Policy Research in Education, 103
Consumer Price Survey, 247
Contracting for services, 153
Core Knowledge Curriculum, 230
Cost indexes, education, 221
adjusted input prices, 270-271
Barro index, 84-85
calculation, 269-282
Chambers' Teachers' Cost Index, 29, 84-85
comparison of, 277-282
conceptual foundation of, 261-269
cost functions converted to, 21, 29
cost-of-living, 84-85, 95, 226, 247-249
cross-sectional, 94, 95, 247, 282
direct controls for performance, 273-277, 281, 283, 287
efficiency controls, 29, 263, 274-277, 278-281, 282, 283, 285-286, 287, 288, 289-291, 293, 294
environmental factors, 266-269, 270, 271, 277-278, 280-281, 282, 289, 292-293
in foundation formulas, 282-291
indirect controls for performance, 271-273, 277, 281, 283
inflation adjustments, 249-251
input prices, 266, 269-271, 277, 279-280, 283, 289
McMahon and Chang's Cost of Living Index, 21, 84-85
performance standards and, 262-264
proxy for at-risk children, 222, 227-228
purpose of, 265-266
weighted students, 21, 29, 57, 104, 148, 168-169, 184, 261, 271, 281, 283
Cost of education.
See also Formulas for distributing funds;
Spending on education
economic definition, 21
empirical models, 192, 206, 216, 218, 223, 224-228, 254-255
professional judgment model, 191-192, 201, 206, 218, 222, 223, 225 , 232-241
public perceptions of, 152
statistical models, 192-193, 206, 216, 219-224, 229-230, 231, 232, 254
student characteristics and, 226-227
teacher salaries, 222, 238, 239-241, 242-245, 246-247, 269-270, 279 , 281, 282
voter preference-tax price methodology, 222, 231, 254
Court cases
Abbott v. Burke, 17, 22, 42, 104, 115, 151, 163, 164, 165, 201, 203 , 254
Alabama Coalition for Equity v. Hunt, 59, 196
Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell, 187
Brown v. Board of Education, 14, 26, 40-41, 176, 177-178, 179, 181 , 187, 205
Burrus v. Wilkerson, 37
Campaign for Fiscal Equity v. State of New York, 45, 68, 197
Campbell County v. Wyoming, 198, 215, 218, 231
City of Pawtucket v. Sandlun, 44, 68, 199
Claremont School District v. Gregg, 42, 68, 196
Claremont v. Governor of New Hampshire, 193
Coalition for Adequacy v. Chiles, 44, 68, 199
Committee for Educational Equality v. Missouri, 42, 170
Committee for Educational Rights v. Edgar, 45, 60, 199
Cummings v. Board of Education, 176
Dupree v. Alma School District No. 30, 42, 67
Edgewood v. Kirby, 42, 56, 67, 104, 160, 161, 170
Freeman v. Pitts, 187
Green v. County School Board, 178
Griffin v. Illinois, 182
Harper v. Hunt, 22, 42, 159, 160, 170
Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections, 182
Hornbeck v. Somerset County Board of Education, 45, 67
Kadrmas v. Dickinson Public Schools, 182
Keyes v. School District No.1, 178
Leandro v. North Carolina, 42, 68, 193
Levittown, 17
McDuffy v. Secretary of Education, 42, 59, 196
McInnis v. Shapiro, 37
McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents, 177
Minneapolis NAACP v. Minnesota, 199
Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada, 176-177
Pauley v. Kelly, 43, 52, 194, 215, 220
Pierce v. Society of Sisters, 238
Plessy v. Ferguson, 176
Robinson v. Cahill, 22, 42, 50, 72, 145, 163, 193
Rodriguez v. San Antonio Independent School District, 39-40, 41, 43, 48, 50, 53, 54, 55, 56, 66, 72, 146, 170, 182, 183
Roosevelt Elementary School District v. Bishop, 42, 68, 197
Rose v. Council for Better Education, 29, 42, 58, 90, 104, 149, 155 , 157, 193, 195, 215
School Administration District #1 v. Commissioner of Education, State of Maine, 68
Seattle v. State of Washington, 43, 52, 193-194
Serrano v. Priest, 3, 8, 39, 42, 47-50, 54, 72, 74, 75, 77, 81, 82 , 84, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95, 143, 145, 169, 170, 183
Shapiro v. Thompson, 182
St. Paul School District v. Minnesota, 199
Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education, 178
Sweatt v. Painter, 177
Tennessee Small School Systems v. McWherter, 42, 67, 68, 197
Van Dusartz v. Hatfield, 66
Washakie v. Herschler, 43, 60, 198
D
Data availability issue, 11, 24-25
Data Envelopment Analysis, 29, 275, 293
Demographics of school finance
impacts of reforms, 87-88
Desegregation, school, 36, 66, 143, 177-179, 187-188, 205
District power equalization, 17, 38, 46, 49, 50, 57, 81, 83, 94, 184-185
see also Guaranteed tax base
District response to reforms.
See also Local school districts;
Resource allocation, reform-related
decision-making models, 100, 102-103, 113
expenditure models, 100, 101-102, 128
incentives for spending, 111
institutional theory, 128
intergovernmental grant theory, 103
methodology for assessing, 103-104
models of, 100-103
perceptions of funding stability and, 128-129
required local effort, 105-106
E
Eagle Forum, 158
Econometric studies, 75-82, 86-87, 152, 223
Education Commission of the States, 144, 169
Education Finance and Management program, 144
Education for All Handicapped Children Act, 26
Education production, 11-12
Education reform, 129-130, 146-147
Education standards, 59, 64, 186-187, 206. See Performance standards
Efficiency
controls, 29, 263, 274-277, 278-281, 282, 283, 285-286, 287, 288, 289-291, 293, 294
definition of, 228
Elementary and Secondary Education Act, 26
Environmental factors.
See also Special-needs students;
Urban school districts;
Weights/weighting standards
and academic performance, 15, 28, 226-227, 266-269, 271-273
cost adjustments, 266-269, 270, 271
Equal opportunity, 22, 64, 166
concepts of equity, 8, 13-16, 24, 50
ex ante and ex post definitions, 13-14
income disparity and, 15
individual characteristics and, 15
issues, 2
legal concepts, 14
measures of, 111
minimum-attainment definition, 16
movement, 143-144
per-pupil expenditures and, 16, 35-36, 149
resource/achievement controversy, 14-15
Equal protection
concept, 14
Equality of Educational Opportunity (Coleman Report), 14-15, 27, 35, 267
Equity concepts
adequacy distinguished from, 12, 22-24, 179-180
analyzing, see Analysis of school finance equity
child/student perspective, 10, 11, 21, 24
horizontal equity, 18-20
taxpayer perspective, 10-11
vertical equity, 20-21
Ex post
horizontal equity, 18-19
Expeditionary Learning program, 230
Extended school services, 104, 119, 124-126
F
Facilities, school, 124-125, 126
Federal government
litigation, see Court cases;
U.S. Constitution
share of funding, 8, 9, 76, 146-147, 236-237
student-level surveys, 25
use of aid from, 9
Federal range ratio, 19, 110, 114
Finance distribution arrangements. See Formulas for distributing funds
Fiscal neutrality. See Wealth neutrality
Florida
impact of reforms, 82
politics, 142-143
Formulas for distributing funds
cost indexes in, 282-291
design considerations, 9, 146, 216, 218-232
district power equalizing (DPE), 17-18, 28, 38, 46-47, 49, 50-51, 81, 83, 94, 184-184
district response to, 9-10, 104
ex post concepts, 12-13
expenditure-based, 287, 288-289
foundation, 104, 105-106, 107, 112, 132, 168, 190-191, 200, 211, 214, 225-226, 282-291
guaranteed tax base (GTB), 17, 28, 104, 105, 106-107, 132
percentage equalizing funding system, 28
performance-based, 286-291
two-tier systems, 57
weights/weighting students, 21, 29, 57, 104, 148, 168-169, 261, 271
Foundation aid, 83, 91-92, 185
Free rider problem, 92
Fundamental interest, education as, 36, 39, 43, 48, 55, 181
G
Georgia, litigation, 44
Gini coefficient, 19, 27, 76, 110-111, 114
Goals 2000, 159
Guaranteed tax base, 17, 81, 94, 104, 105, 133
see also District power of equalization
H
Horizontal equity
litigation based on, 35-36
measures of, 19-20
price adjustments in, 29
research on, 19-20
I
Illinois, 37
adequacy standard, 226, 228, 255
Commission on Education Funding, 225
constitution, 66
cost of education, 225-226, 229, 231, 255
Goals Assessment Program, 226
impact of reforms, 82
litigation, 45, 60, 175, 199, 212
spending for education, 212
Impacts of reforms, 8.
See also State aid changes
on black students, 89-90
cost-of-living adjustments, 84-86
econometric studies, 75-82, 86-89, 152
educational outcomes, 65, 90-91, 93, 100
on horizontal equity, 20
on income, 82-84
on litigation, 59
on low-house-income districts, 86-89
peer group effects, 82
price-of-education perspective, 80-82
private school enrollments, 92-93
on real resources, see Resource allocation, reform-related
research needs on, 127, 130-132
on revenues, 68, 75-76, 77, 78-82, 86-89, 104-112
simulation models, 82-84
on spending on education, 4, 49-50, 74-78, 93, 212-213
voluntary contributions, 91-92, 95
years after reform and, 87-88, 89
Income
redistribution programs, 15
spending on education and, 82-84, 86-89, 253-254, 280
Indiana, litigation, 46
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 21
Inputs into education, 11-12.
See also Spending on education
and ability to pay, 17
access to, 14
horizontal equity applied to, 18-19
and performance, 25
race-based litigation, 177
Instruction.
See also Cost of education
decision making, 237-238
model program, 224
resource allocation for, 101, 115, 119, 120, 233-238, 239-240
Interest groups, 142, 143, 144-145, 153, 157, 158, 164, 165, 167
Intergovernmental grant theory, 100, 101
International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement , 251
K
Kansas
litigation, 44
spending on education, 213
Kentucky
adequacy standard, 22, 23, 58, 62, 64, 68, 167, 175, 195, 196, 198 , 200-201, 203, 206, 215, 216
constitution, 155
context for reforms, 156-157
district response to reforms, 103, 104, 128
education reform, 129
impacts of reforms, 90, 104-112, 156, 200-201
litigation, 42, 58-59, 69, 90, 104, 149, 155, 167, 195, 196, 198, 203, 206, 212, 215
politics of school finance reform, 155-157, 166, 167, 200
Pritchard Committee for Academic Excellence, 157, 159, 167
reforms, 59, 64, 73, 90, 104, 106-107, 112, 128, 133, 149, 156, 200
resource allocation changes, 112, 114-115, 116, 121-122, 124, 126 -127, 128, 163, 195, 230
spending on education, 212
L
Legislation, federal.
See also specific statutes
significant years for, 26
vertical-equity-based, 21
Legislation, state
achievement of equity through, 4
politics of, 142-143, 144, 145, 147, 156, 159
responsiveness to court-mandated reforms, 49, 50-51, 56, 63-64
Leveling-up issue, 111, 138-139, 145, 150, 161, 186
Litigation, school finance.
See also Court cases;
State court litigation;
U.S. Supreme Court litigation
character of, 34-35
future of, 63-65
geographic uniformity principle, 36, 38, 180, 185
horizontal equity principle, 35-36
importance to reform, 166-167
origins and evolution, 34-41
Local control issue, 138, 151, 164, 198-199
Local school districts.
See also District response to reforms
enrollments, 293
horizontal equity, 19-20
impact of reforms, 78-80, 84-86
inter-district equity, 21, 180
intra-district equity, 11, 65, 180
low-household-income districts, 84, 86-89
measures of equity between, 111
spending, 76
as unit of analysis, 11, 20, 22, 25
vertical equity, 20-21, 29, 58
Louisiana, litigation, 46, 175
M
Maryland, litigation, 45, 55-56, 67
Massachusetts, 28
constitution, 66
cost of education, 212, 289, 292
McMahon and Chang's Cost of Living Index, 21, 84-85
Measures of inequality
coefficient of variation, 19, 76, 85, 110-111, 114
federal range ratio, 19, 110, 114
Gini coefficient, 19, 27, 76, 110-111, 114
95/5 ratio, 76, 77, 85, 110, 144, 170
test scores, 83
Theil index, 19-20, 76-77, 78, 85, 86, 95
Michigan
politics, 142-143
Minnesota
constitution, 66
impact of reforms, 82
litigation, 45, 50, 55-56, 60, 175, 199, 212
politics, 142-143
spending on education, 212
Mississippi
constitution, 169
spending on education, 213
Missouri
litigation, 42, 170, 176-177, 213
spending on education, 213
Modern Red Schoolhouse, 230
Montana
spending on education, 212
N
A Nation at Risk, 21-22, 146, 147, 186
National Academy of Education, 253
National Alliance for Restructuring Education, 230
National Assessment Governing Board, 253
National Center for Education Statistics, 19, 86, 95, 154
Common Core of Data, 25
National Commission on Excellence in Education, 147
National Conference of State Legislators, 144
National Educational Longitudinal Survey, 91
National Governors' Association, 159
National Longitudinal Survey of the High School Class of 1972, 90-91
National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 84
National reform network, 144-145
Nebraska, litigation, 44
New American Schools, 230
New Hampshire
litigation, 42, 175, 196-197, 199, 212
spending on education, 212
New Jersey
adequacy standard, 22, 175, 193, 195, 202-204, 206, 254
district response to reforms, 103, 104, 129
education reform, 129
enforcement of reforms, 145, 163
Hands Across New Jersey, 164
legislation, 164, 201-203, 204
litigation, 22, 42, 47, 50-51, 53, 57, 69, 104, 145, 151, 163, 164 , 175, 195, 206, 212, 254
politics of school finance reform, 145, 151-152, 163-165, 166
reforms, 50-51, 73, 104, 106-107, 113, 129, 164, 201, 203-204
resource allocation changes, 99, 101, 102, 115-119, 121, 123, 125, 126-127, 129, 163
spending levels, 64, 148, 201, 212
New Mexico, litigation, 46, 213
New York City, 20, 91, 192, 221, 223, 227, 275-282, 294
New York State
costs of education, 220, 221, 223, 255, 271, 275-282, 283, 287, 292 , 293-294
Extraordinary Needs Aid program, 271
impact of reforms, 82
litigation, 45, 55-56, 175, 197, 21
Pupil Evaluation Program, 265
resource allocation changes, 101
spending on education, 212
North Carolina, litigation, 42, 55-56, 175, 197-198, 199, 212
North Dakota, litigation, 44, 212
O
Ohio
adequacy standard, 228
cost of education, 224, 225, 255
litigation, 42, 53, 62, 175, 197, 212
spending on education, 212
Oklahoma
adequacy standard, 23
impact of reforms, 82
litigation, 44
reform, 43
Oregon, 146
Outcomes, educational, 12-13
adequacy standard and, 58, 200, 251-253
assessment of, 131
dropout rates, 83-84, 90, 225, 264, 273
impacts of reforms on, 90-91, 93
income disparities and, 15
indirect controls for, 221
measures of, 83-84, 200, 220-221, 225, 226, 227-228, 232, 253, 264 , 273
pupil/teacher ratios and, 233-234
resource allocation and, 25, 90-91, 131
shift in focus to, 22, 53, 176
spending and, 83-84, 90-91, 152, 283-284
student characteristics and, 15, 28, 226-227
test scores, 83-84, 90-91, 152, 187, 220, 222, 226-227, 264, 267, 273
Outputs of education.
See also Academic performance;
Outcomes, educational
horizontal equity applied to, 18
minimum vs. relative, 24
vertical equity applied to, 20
Outward Bound, 230
P
Pennsylvania, litigation, 45, 53, 54-55, 175
Per pupil expenditures. See Spending on Education
Performance standards. See Academic performance;
Education standards;
Student outcome assessments
cost indexes and, 262-264
court ordered, 260
criterion-references, 253
cutoff points, 256
educational adequacy and, 59
external influences, 260-261, 265-266
movement, 186-187
national testing, 206
norm-referenced, 252-253
reform linked to, 1-2, 59, 260
school district, 274
and spending for education, 126
Politics of school finance, 61.
See also individual states
and analysis of school finance equity, 11
anti-government/anti-tax sentiment and, 152-153, 157, 158, 159-160, 161, 164, 165-166
demographics and, 139, 153-154, 160
executive branch, 141, 142-143, 144, 145, 147, 156-157, 165, 167, 200
fiscal context, 140, 145-147, 150, 158, 161, 166, 167
formulas for funding, 190-191
history, 142-154
incentives for involvement in reforms, 139-142, 143, 155, 166, 168
interest groups, 142, 143, 144-145, 153, 157, 158, 164, 165, 167
judicial branch, 141-142, 149-150, 165, 166, 183
legislative branch, 140, 142-143, 144, 145, 147, 156, 159, 167
leveling-up issue, 111, 138-139, 145, 150, 161, 185
local control issue, 138, 151, 164
racial prejudice, 152-153, 154, 160, 162, 164-165, 166, 167
and spending, 143, 145-146, 148, 150, 152, 163
tax increases and, 138, 140, 145-146, 151-152, 156, 159
Private management of schools, 153
Private schools, 92-93, 238, 268-269
Private Wealth and Public Education, 17, 181
Production. See Education production
Property taxes, 65
benefit principle and, 10
compensation for inequalities, 8, 145-146
political considerations, 145-146, 151-152
rates, 49-50, 94, 104, 105, 107-109, 111, 145-146
relief, 87, 99, 101, 103, 105, 145-146, 162-163, 164
Public school system, structural changes, 25
R
Race, spending on education by, 89-90
Racial discrimination, 14, 40-41, 176-179, 181, 187-188
Racial integration, 199
Racial prejudice, 152-153, 154, 160, 165, 166, 167
Reapportionment cases, 36
Research
on educational adequacy, 23
on horizontal equity, 19-20
on resource allocation, 130-132
wealth neutrality concept used in, 18
Resource allocation, reform-related.
See also Spending on education
and academic performance, 7, 9, 14-15, 25, 152
for administration, 101, 115, 120, 121, 239-241, 245
for capital outlay, 115-119, 121
categorical grants, 101, 104, 130, 234, 235, 236, 239-241
decision-making models, 102-103, 113, 127, 128, 129-130, 131
design considerations, 216, 221
direct educational expense, 115-119
and educational outcomes, 25, 90-91
for extended school services, 104, 119, 124-126, 126, 130
for facilities, 124-125, 126, 127, 129
for instruction, 101, 115, 119, 120, 233-238, 239-240
models, 100-103
operations and maintenance, 115-119, 120
public trust issue, 152
research needs on, 130-132
for special needs students, 104, 110, 119, 120, 124-125, 126, 148, 235-237, 246
for staff development, 121, 122-123, 126, 235, 239-241
standards-driven, 129-130
for supplies and equipment, 101, 124-125, 126, 128, 245
for tax relief, 87, 99, 101, 103, 105, 106, 145-146
for teacher/staff salaries, 52, 85, 99, 101, 102, 103, 121, 122-123, 126, 130, 238, 239-241, 242-245, 246
transportation, 115-119
tuition for out-of-district placements, 115-119
unrestricted general aid, 101
vertical equity, 20
Revenue for school finance.
See also Property taxes
impacts of reforms on, 75-76, 77, 78-80, 85-86, 87, 89-90, 104-112
per-pupil, 4, 78-80, 86, 89-90, 108-109
recapture, 57, 94, 104, 161-162
required local effort, 105-106
sources, 9, 72, 77, 87, 108-109, 148, 150, 166
Rhode Island, litigation, 44, 60, 175, 199, 231
Roots and Wings, 230
S
School-based decision making, 11, 27, 207
School choice, 64, 94, 153, 164, 207, 222
School Development Program, 230
School finance equity. See Equity concepts
School-level analysis, 18-19, 24, 292
School size considerations, 234-235
Separation-of-powers concerns, 53, 201
South Carolina, litigation, 45, 175
South Dakota, litigation, 46
Special-needs students, 66, 104, 110, 119, 120, 124-125, 126, 148, 153, 168-169, 201, 205, 235-237, 246, 271, 293
Spending on education.
See also Resource allocation, reform-related
ability to pay and, 86-89
between-state, 4, 75, 76, 77, 85
cost-of-living adjustments, 84-86
decision making, 8-9
determinants of, 74
efficiency of, 131-132
and equal opportunity, 16, 35-36, 150
impact of reforms, 4, 49-50, 74-78, 84-93, 110, 211
measures of inequality, 76-77, 83, 110-111
models, 101-102
and outcomes of education, 83-84, 90-91, 152, 283-284
patterns, 127, 143, 163-164, 211, 212-213
per pupil, 8-9, 16, 35-36, 49-50, 61, 75, 76, 78-80, 88, 89, 118, 146, 148, 150, 152, 163, 180
and quality of education, 152
by race, 89-90
substitution effects, 80
within-state, 4, 75, 76, 77-78, 85
Staff development, 121, 122-123, 235, 239-241
State aid changes.
See also Formulas for distributing funds
district response to, 100-103, 105-109
see also Resource allocation, reform-related
intergovernmental grant theory, 101
policy implications, 127-130
and price of education, 80-82
research implications, 130-132
and school district revenues, 109-112
trends, 105
State court litigation.
See also Court cases;
Impacts of reforms;
individual states
education clauses, 35, 43, 44, 46, 50, 52, 54, 55, 56, 58, 60, 66, 67, 73, 149, 189-190
educational adequacy claim, 22, 47, 51-52, 55-56, 59-60, 62, 63-64, 65, 68, 175, 183, 188-193
equal protection challenges, 35-36, 43, 48, 50, 54, 55, 56, 61, 66 -67, 72-73, 143-144, 149, 183, 199
equity cases, 65, 68, 179-180, 182-183, 190
fiscal neutrality standard (Coons Proposition I), 46, 47, 48, 50-51, 54, 55, 56-57, 61, 62, 63-65, 66, 67, 144, 146, 149, 175, 181-182, 184-185, 205
legislative responses to, 56-57, 60-61, 62, 63-64, 144, 198, 199-205
results, 35, 41-46, 47-48, 53-55, 56, 59-60, 68, 69, 72, 144, 146, 149, 175
separation-of-powers concerns, 53, 201
vertical equity cases, 54-55, 63, 64-65
wealth discrimination, 38-41, 183-188, 190
States.
See also individual states
constitutional requirements for free public schools, 169
with court-ordered reforms, 73
spending on education, 212-213
Strict scrutiny test, 40
Student outcome assessments, 51, 59, 61, 62, 190, 218, 239-241
Supplies and equipment, 101, 124-125, 126, 239-241, 245
Suspect classification, wealth as, 39, 43
T
Tax relief, 87, 99, 101, 103, 105, 145-146, 151, 162-163, 164
Taxpayer equity, 10-11, 27, 28, 29
Taxpayer support for reforms, 129, 138-139
Teacher/staff
salaries, 52, 85, 99, 101, 102, 103, 121, 122-123, 219, 222, 238, 239-241, 242-245, 246-247, 269-270, 273, 279, 281, 282, 283, 292
Teacher/pupil ratios, 84, 102, 233-234, 246
Teachers unions, 142, 143, 242
Tennessee
litigation, 42, 67, 175, 197, 212
reforms, 73
spending on education, 212
Test scores, 83-84, 90-91, 152, 187, 220, 222, 226-227, 264, 267
Texas
Assessment of Academic Skills, 227, 228
district response to reforms, 103, 104, 129
education reform, 129
impact of reforms, 82, 104-112, 113
litigation, 39-40, 42, 50, 56-57, 69, 104, 146, 160, 161, 177, 183 , 205, 212
politics of school finance, 160-163, 166
racial discrimination, 177, 205
reforms, 57, 73, 104, 106-107, 113, 129, 160-161, 162
resource allocation changes, 84, 112-113, 119, 120, 121, 123, 125, 126-127, 129
spending on education, 212
Theil index, 19-20, 76-77, 78, 85, 86
Third International Mathematics and Science Study, 251, 252
U
Urban school districts, 54, 99, 119, 140, 147-148, 153-154, 163-164, 183-184, 187-188, 190, 192, 201, 202, 207, 219
U.S. Constitution
Fourteenth Amendment, 17, 35, 48, 176, 178, 183, 214.
See also Equal protection
U.S. Supreme Court litigation, 12, 35-41
geographic uniformity principle, 36, 180-181
horizontal equity challenges, 35-36
racial discrimination, 14, 26, 40-46, 176, 181
vertical equity (needs-based) claims, 36-37
V
Variance decomposition, 76
Vermont
Vertical equity, 20-21, 23, 24, 29
litigation based on, 36-37, 54-55
Virginia, litigation, 37, 44, 60
W
Washington
constitution, 194
impacts of reforms, 148
litigation, 43, 47, 52, 53, 69, 193-194
reforms, 73
Wealth as a suspect classification, 39, 43
concept in school finance equity, 16-18, 24, 28
equal opportunity and, 14
measures of, 17-18, 28, 111-112
research, 18
shift away from, 183-188
state litigation based on, 46, 47, 48, 50-51, 54, 55, 56-57, 61,63, 67, 144, 146, 149, 175, 181-182, 183, 205
unit of analysis, 17
Weights/weighting students, 21, 29, 57, 104, 148, 168-169, 184, 261 , 271, 283
West Virginia
adequacy standard, 194, 215, 216, 220
litigation, 43, 47, 52-53, 57, 69, 194, 195, 215
spending on education, 212
Whole School Design, 230
Wisconsin
cost of education, 220, 221, 255, 278
litigation, 45, 55-56, 68, 212
spending on education, 212
Wyoming
adequacy standard, 198, 215, 217-218, 220, 230-251
litigation, 43, 56, 60-61, 69, 175, 198, 212, 215, 218
