as well as stages of organization—are described below in terms of their influence on the opportunities for research collaboration.

There is no single empirically demonstrated explanation of the cause of drug addiction. Neither is there any single universally accepted theory that explains addiction. Therefore the orientation of the treatment program is the first major determinant of the nature of the relationship between researchers and practitioners. Many treatment professionals view addiction as a biopsychosocial (and perhaps spiritual) condition (Ewing, 1978; IOM, 1990, 1997; Metzger, 1988; Moos et al., 1990; Zucker et al., 1994). This eclectic view has significant implications for theory development and for research. Different weights may be ascribed to the biological, psychological, social, and spiritual dimensions depending on the perspective of the investigator or clinician. If, for example, a researcher is interested in investigating genetic predisposition, then the social-cultural triggers to using drugs, or the psychological and emotional dimensions, will likely remain unexamined.

One or a small combination of particular theories forms the underpinning of each treatment research design. Investigations may test (a) a drug to block a receptor, (b) an incentive to change a behavior, (c) knowledge to change understanding, (d) faith to reinforce volition, or (e) the use of vocational rehabilitation to affirm self-esteem. In a parallel, but often less explicit manner, one or more of these orientations also serve as underpinning to treatment programs. Many residential programs are based on reconstructing self-image. Most counseling is based on some combination of behavior modification and self-awareness. Medications like methadone or naltrexone are used to block specific biologic receptor functions.

Compatibility between the theoretical underpinning of the research and those of the treatment program is one important ingredient to a successful relationship. Investigators must, first of all, be willing to explore and understand the explicit or implicit theory that guides the program's treatment strategies. If novel theoretical concepts are being tested or introduced, the investigators should be prepared to orient and train management and treatment staff so they understand the research question as well as the intervention and can provide consistent support.

Linkages between research and treatment enterprises are often impeded by different understanding of what is meant by research. Many researchers think primarily of experimental designs, while the practitioner is more