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Introduction
HELEN A. GUTHRIE
In this session, two previously unpublished studies are presented an
analysis of variety in the diet and an analysis of snacking and eating away
from home. The 1977-1978 Nationwide Food Consumption Survey (NFCS)
(USDA, 1983, 1984) and the Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys
(HANES I and NHANES II) (USDHEW, 1979, 1984) have provided
insights into the eating trends of Americans and the resulting nutritional
adequacy of their diets (Crocetti and Guthrie, 1982~. Some results from
those analyses confimned commonly held beliefs about how Americans
eat. Other results, however, were surprising and brought into question
long-held assumptions about eating trends in the United States. These
findings are briefly presented here.
NFCS AND HANES
Since their inception, both NECS and HANES have provided infor-
mation on the food and nutrient intake of the U.S. population. In order
to use the findings of the early surveys for nutritional guidance, nutrition
intervention programs, and food and agricultural policy, it became obvious
that information beyond what Americans eat was needed; for example,
we needed information on social, economic, demographic, and cultural
factors associated with varying food patterns.
Therefore, the 1977-1978 NFCS was modified to provide data sufficient
to identify and determine the nutritional consequences of venous eating
patterns of persons and to identify the demographic characteristics of
87
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88
EATING TRENDS AND NUTRITIONAL CONSEQUENCES
respondents with common patterns of nutritional adequacy and inade-
quacy. Similarly, NHANES It collected sufficient additional information
on health practices to permit inferences about health nutrition indicators.
Meal Patterns
The NFCS indicated that 90% of all respondents ate regular meals-
that is, two or three meals each day for 3 consecutive days (Crocetti and
Guthrie, 19821. Of these, two-thirds ate three meals on each of 3 days,
8% ate two meals on each of 3 days, and the remaining respondents ate
two or three meals on each of 3 days. The nutritional adequacy of re-
spondents' diets was directly related to the number of days that respondents
consumed regular meals, regardless of the number of snacks. Almost 50%
of those who regularly ate two meals per day skipped breakfast, whereas
when others missed a meal, it was more often the midday meal than
breakfast. When the meal pattern differed for one day, that day was almost
invariably a weekend day. The classification of eating occasion was based
on the respondent's designation of breakfast, lunch, supper, snack, and
so on.
Snacking
Three-quarters of the NFCS respondents reported snacking at least once
in 3 days. When their intakes were compared to appropriate Recommended
Dietary Allowances, those who snacked had more nutritionally adequate
diets than those who did not snack, and as the number of snacks increased,
the adequacy of diets of all age groups increased. This finding suggests
that the nutrient density of snack foods was as high as that of foods selected
for meals. For most people who snacked, the snacks provided from 10%
to 20C%o of calories and of 10 assessed nutrients. Traditional snack foods,
such as pretzels, chips, and soft dnnks, were eaten more often as part of
a meal than as a snack; candy and ice cream were the only two foods
mentioned more often as snacks than as part of a meal. As anticipated,
the frequency of snacking declined with age.
Compliance win Nutritional Guidance
The NECS data were analyzed to determine the extent to which re-
spondents chose foods that conformed to the basic four food guidance
approach the major nutrition education effort at the time of the survey
(Crocetti and Guthrie, 1982; Guthne and Wright, 19841. At least one-
half the number of recommended servings from each of the four food
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INTRODUCTION
89
groups was consumed by 83% of respondents during the 3-day period,
whereas only 3% consumed the recommended 6 servings from both the
meat and milk groups and 12 servings from both the cereal and the fruit
and vegetable groups. The higher the degree of compliance with the basic
four recommendations, the more adequate the diet; however, respondents
who followed the food pattern did not necessarily show a recommended
distribution of caloric intake from carbohydrates, fat, and protein.
Food Choice
Although grocery stores reportedly stock several thousand food items
and the USDA tables of food composition contain well over 4,000 entries,
NFCS respondents reported a relatively small number of these foods with
any frequency (Guthne and Wright, 1984~. For instance, oranges and
orange juice, apples, and bananas accounted for 62% of the mentions of
fruits; potatoes, tomatoes, lettuce, beans, peas, and corn accounted for
73% of the mentions of vegetables. Similarly, data from both NHANES
and NFCS showed that more than 80% of the assessed nutrients came
from fewer than six different foods. In addition, some foods reported in
He NFCS were clearly identified with either children or adults (Crocetti
and Guthne, 1982~. For example, milk, ice cream, soft dnnks, and nut
buyers were consumed more frequently by children than by adults, whereas
eggs and cheese were consumed more by adults. Tea and coffee, reported
an average of 5.27 times over a 3-day period, were the most frequently
reported items, followed closely by milk (5.1 mentions) and bread (4.7
mentions). This information should provide a basis for developing a less
burdensome approach to assessing dietary intake and adequacy.
Data from He NFCS and NHANES are voluminous, and nutritionists
must continue to study Hem in order to answer questions about relation-
ships among food patterns, nutrient adequacy, health indicators, and social
factors. The following two papers analyze data from the NFCS that relate
to variety in the diet and to snacking and eating away from home; such
analyses provide a better understanding of the complexities of Amencan
eating patterns and a stronger foundation on which to base nutrition policies
and education efforts.
REFERENCES
Croeetti, A. F., and H. A. Gutlwie. 1982. Eating Behavior and Associated Nutrient Quality of
Diets. Final report for contract 53-22 U4-9-192, October. Human Nutrition Center, Science
and Education Administration. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
Gutless, H. A., and H. S. Wright. 1984. Assessing Dietary Intakes. Final report for contract
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90 EATING TRENDS ED N=RITION~ CONSEQUENCES
58-3198-2-57, December. Human Nutrition Information Center. U.S. Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, D.C.
USDA (U.S. l:)epartment of Agriculture). 1983. Food Intakes: Individuals in 48 States, Year
1977-78. Human Nutrition Information Service, Consumer Nutrition Division, Nationwide
Food Consumption Survey 1977-78, Report No. l-1, August. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Hyattsville, Md.
USDA (U.S. Department of Agriculture). 1984. Food Intakes: Individuals in 48 States, Year
1977-78. Human Nutrition Information Service, Consumer Nutrition Division, Nationwide
Food Consumption Survey 1977-78, Report No. I-2, November. U.S. Department of Agri-
culture, Hyattsville, Md.
USDHEW (U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare). 1979. Dietary lutake Source
Data: United States, 1971-74. DHEW Publication No. (PHS) 79-1221. Public Health Service,
Office of Health Research, Statistics, and Technology. National Center for Health Statistics,
Hyattsville, Md.
USDHHS (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services). 1984. Dietary Intake Source Data:
United States, 1976-80. DHEW Publication No. (PHS) 83-1681. Public Health Service, Office
of Health Research, Statistics, and Technology. National Center for Health Statistics, Hyatts-
ville, Md.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
human nutrition
