|
Items in cart [0] |
Questions? Call 888-624-8373 |
| Copyright © 2009. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Terms of Use and Privacy Statement |
Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole.
Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter.
Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.
Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines.
OCR for page 271
4
Detection, Monitoring, and
Risk Assessment
RESISTANCE DETECTION MEANS IDENTIFYING a significant change in the
susceptibility of a pest population to pesticides, ideally very soon
after the emergence of resistance. Resistance monitoring attempts to
measure changes in the frequency or degree of resistance in time and space.
Resistance monitoring is most useful when undertaken early in a resistance
episode. Monitoring can also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of alter-
native tactics that are employed to overcome, delay, or prevent the devel-
opment of resistance.
In contrast to detection and monitoring of resistance in the field after the
fact, resistance risk assessment is predicting the probability of resistance
emerging as a result of use of a pesticide in a given use environment. A risk
assessment is subject to a varying margin of error and should, in any event,
be applied with care. Resistance risk assessments can be made for certain
plant pathogens with some precision when the toxicological, epidemiological,
and population considerations of the pathogen are well known from previous
resistance episodes (Staub and Sozzi, 19841. In such cases, resistance man-
agement actions may be taken to prevent resistance before it occurs and is
detected in the field. Likewise, there are extensive historical data bases on
resistance trends for some insects that make it possible to carry out resistance
risk assessments, thereby making it possible to manage resistance by re-
stricting the use of certain pesticides, or by managing their application in
some specific fashion (Keiding, this volume). More often than not, though,
271
OCR for page 272
272
DETECTION, MONITORING, AND RISK ASSESSMENT
the data base on the resistance potential of a given pest and pesticide com-
bination is too limited to allow for resistance risk predictions that are reliable
enough for use in devising strategies to manage resistance.
Detection, monitoring, and assessment of resistance risk are interrelated.
They are generally used during different, sometimes overlapping periods in a
resistance episode, and each has a distinctly different objective. A resistance
risk assessment may be made when a new compound is proposed for use on a
new target pest, or in a new crop or region. A resistance detection program
should be initiated when a resistance risk assessment- or common experience-
suggests a likelihood of resistance developing. With pesticides involving new
chemistry and modes of action, the resistance risk potential will rarely be known.
The resistance potential of known products, or of their chemical analogues,
often can be assessed with reasonable precision. Once resistance is defected q
the ideal program shifts into a monitoring phase. During this phase the spread
and degree of resistance are periodically determined.
Specific, well-known objectives of these interrelated activities include
· Provide an early assessment of the risk for resistance before a pesticide
is widely used.
· Determine whether ineffective control following applications of a pes-
ticide are due to resistance.
· Provide an early warning system so that alternative pest-control tactics
can be implemented.
· Delineate the geographic extent and movement of the resistant species
over time.
· Validate the effectiveness of resistance management tactics introduced
at a specific time and place.
· Provide effective crop protection.
METHODS AVAILABLE FOR RESISTANCE DETECTION,
MONITORING, AND RISK ASSESSMENT
Resistance detection and monitoring methods for pest species have in the
past been based on classical bioassay techniques (see examples in Keiding
and in Brent, this volume; FAO, 1982; Georgopolous, 19821. With these
methods, test organisms are exposed to a gradient of pesticide doses or
concentrations, and features of mortality, growth, or population abundance
are evaluated. More recently, biochemical tests for identifying unique de-
toxification enzymes associated with resistant pests have been refined for
use in survey of both resistant individuals and populations (Miyata, 19831.
Even more recent are immunological tests for resistance based on identifi-
cation of detoxification enzymes using monoclonal antibodies (e.g., Dev-
onshire and Moores, 1984~. One expected benefit from biotechnology research
OCR for page 273
DETECTION, MONITORING, AND RISK ASSESSMENT
273
is DNA probes, which may be used to identify specific genetic sequences
such as alleles conferring resistance in a pest species. It appears likely that
a much greater degree of resolution and more specific identification of re-
sistance alleles in pest individuals and populations will be available in the
near future. These tools should enable monitoring of resistance much earlier
than is currently possible.
RESEARCH ON RESISTANCE DETECTION AND MONITORING
Research is needed at several levels to determine the speed and degree of
resistance that may develop in a given pesticide-use environment (see Chap-
ters 2 and 31.
At the molecular level, experimental assays in vitro and in viva may be
used to compare responses to proposed new compounds with currently used
compounds eliciting known (or unknown) resistance mechanisms. Generally,
it is assumed that a biochemical mechanism that is genetically conferred is
the cause of resistance in most species.
At the organismal level, tests with large and diverse populations may be
helpful to determine the degree and speed with which resistance may develop
in a species. The impacts of a variety of factors on the speed of resistance
developing can be studied, including the resistance mechanism, allele dom-
in~n~P. ~n`1 fr~.n''~.no.v immigration of sll~centible tones into the system, the
'''a'' -- a'' - ''-~ d ~ -''''''-Do rid Jr
competitiveness of resistant types, etc.
At the population level, the probability of resistance developing under
varying ecological conditions and field-use practices may be examined through
field tests using the methods employed by pest-control personnel or in trial
runs made in conjunction with pest-management operations. In this type of
test, problems are often encountered with experimental design, making it
difficult to control treatments on highly mobile pests.
RECOMMENDATION 1. The following research is needed to evaluate the
biological and practical feasibility of resistance detection and monitoring in
key pests.
· Develop new and improved standard methods to detect and monitor
resistance for key pests, where needed. Extensive work in this area has
been done by industry and by the World Health Organization (WHO), the
Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), the European Plant Protection
Organization (EPPO), the Entomological Society of America (ESA), and
other similar organizations. Continued and expanded cooperation is needed.
Detection and monitoring methods should be as simple, rapid, accurate,
precise, field-adaptable, and inexpensive as possible. Major differences in
methods exist among pest types, i.e., insects, weeds, microorganisms, and
these differences properly (and sometimes improperly) can influence how
OCR for page 274
274
DETECTION, MONITORING, AND RISK ASSESSMENT
data are interpreted. Monitoring systems need to consider the unique attributes
of each pest group and differences among and within species in different
geographic areas.
· Determine the relationship between detection and/or frequency of
resistance as measured by laboratory bioassay tests, and the likelihood
and severity of failure of a pesticide under field conditions. Data from
resistance monitoring, coupled with field observations, can then be the basis
for rational decision making.
· Collect and compile baseline susceptibility data for pesticides effec-
tive against key pests. An important use of these data will be to estimate
doses that kill essentially all susceptible individuals (for example, twice the
LDg91. Such doses could then be used for sampling efforts that can quickly
detect resistance. The nature of the data needed for different species may
vary seasonally over time, geographically, and according to when various
pesticides were first introduced commercially.
· Develop specialized evaluation methods and statistical procedures
for early detection of resistance at low levels, when required. Such meth-
ods may differ considerably from routine monitoring methods, and may
involve specialized genetic screening tests.
· Evaluate new and developing immunological, biochemical, and bio-
technological methods for monitoring resistance in the field. Resistance
tests for most pests should be directed at the population level; however,
assessments of individuals also is possible based on new biochemical and
immunological methods that are becoming available. These assessments may
prove important for some pests, although many of the currently used bioassays
to monitor plant pathogens evaluate individuals (i.e., isolates) rather than
populations.
· Research on each of the above methods should consider accuracy and
precision, cost of collecting samples, previous pesticide histories, environ-
mental conditions, and other sources of experimental variation that may
affect pest susceptibility. To determine the appropriate size and frequency of
a resistance monitoring program, the following should all be considered: sta-
tistical levels of accuracy required for detection, time delays involved in mon-
itoring, and time required to set resistance management into action.
IMPLEMENTATION
Where feasible, a resistance monitoring system should be based partly on
an areawide, regular survey scheme and should respond to local reports of
control failures for key pests throughout their potential range of infestation
and economic impact. Once resistance is detected, the scope and extent of
the monitoring should be expanded to determine the size, type, and spread
of resistance. Ideally, monitoring results will become available on a timely
OCR for page 275
DETECTION,MONITORING,AND RISK ASSESSMENT
275
basis certainly within a production season-to allow for development and
implementation of appropriate management tactics. Levels of resistance that
can be reliably detected in the field may vary greatly depending on pest
species and the environment in which pesticide is used. Thus, to ensure
economical crop protection, it may also be important to take into account
the variable periods of time required for a pest to develop resistance, and
for resistance to reach a level at which crop production efforts may fail
without a change in control strategy and/or chemicals.
Examples of pests for which a resistance monitoring program might be ap-
propriate and feasible include Be insects Heliothis sp., Spodoptera sp., boD
weevil, Colorado potato beetle, alla aphids; mites; the fungal plant pathogens
Penicillium sp., Cercospora sp., Botrytis, Monilinia; downy mildews; and cer-
tain other pest groups, including selected grass weeds, rodents, etc.
Monitoring technologies must be developed to evaluate management strat-
egies, validate tactics (Chapter 5), accurately determine critical frequencies
for pests under different conditions (i.e., crop, climate, economics), and
guide implementation of optimum tactics. At present, some theoretical con-
cepts that have been inadequately tested in the field are being advocated for
use in resistance management planning. This practice can be dangerous and
emphasizes the need to address deficiencies in knowledge through compre-
hensive research efforts of applied biologists, population biologists, toxi-
cologists, and modelers.
Efforts should be made to identify and exploit more systematically the
expertise of industry, academia, and public-sector agencies for conducting
research and monitoring pesticide resistance. Both the extension service and
industry have access to data on geographical extent and degree of resistance
development in particular regions. A critical issue that will always need
attention is confirming the validity of resistance reports. Industry can assist
in eliminating false reports of resistance by rapidly sharing any data that
suggest a change in resistance in a given pest population. A major commit-
ment on the part of pesticide companies to resistance detection and monitoring
and to the communication of their findings will be extremely helpful to any
public information and recommendation system. The committee commends
those companies that have already demonstrated both a willingness and com-
mitment to these goals.
RECOMMENDATION 2. Working groups involving both private and public
sectors should continuously identify the priority of pests for resistance mon-
itoring, based on estimates of economic, environmental, and social costs
and benefits. Such working groups should be convened by state agricultural
experiment stations, working in conjunction with extension, industry, and
university scientists. The involvement and input of grower groups should
also be encouraged.
OCR for page 276
276
DETECTION, MONITORING, AND RISK ASSESSMENT
RESISTANCE-RISK ASSESSMENT
Resistance-r~sk assessment is carried out intuitively by a wide variety of
personnel associated with pesticide discovery, development, or use. Rela-
tively few, however, have attempted to present more formal or structured
methods for organizing or implementing assessment systems. Exceptions
exist including the WHO program for health-related pest insects (Chapter
6), house flies in Danish farms (Keiding, this volume), and with certain
highly specific fungicides applied for plant disease control (Staub and Sozzi,
1984~.
RECOMMENDATION 3. Research methods and data bases needed to carry
out resistance risk assessments need to be developed more fully and system"
atically. Components such as historical data bases, detection and monitoring
data, resistance models, laboratory selection tests for resistance, and use
data could be incorporated into overall systems that can be used to aid in
risk-assessment decisions with a higher degree of benefit.
IMPLEMENTATION OF RESISTANCE-RISK ASSESSMENT
The results of resistance-r~sk assessments should serve as aids to decision-
makers and should not be considered conclusive forecasts of the outcome of
a resistance episode. The designers of resistance-r~sk assessment programs
must ensure that the results of these programs are balanced scientifically and
consider species and local differences.
Greater communication is needed among all personnel associated with the
development, use, regulation, and research on pesticides and pesticide re-
sistance. Information systems to monitor resistance currently are maintained
by a variety of international, national, and local institutions (e.g., WHO,
FAO, USDA, EPA, U.S. Department of Defense, university laboratories,
mosquito control districts, pest-management areas). Additional data bases
will certainly be developed in the future. There is need to coordinate and
share information from these systems to the entire pesticide user community
to be used in resistance-r~sk assessment.
RECOMMENDATION 4. Appropriate international, federal, state, and local
agencies should establish and maintain data bases both to support moni-
toring and detection systems and to serve as a repository and clearing house
for data on monitoring resistance. The data bases should contain information
on pest species, chemical-use profiles, local conditions, resistance mecha-
nisms, levels of resistance, test methods, and cross-resistances. Studies are
needed on ways to coordinate the diverse resistance data base activities better
among these groups and institutions.
Both public agencies and pesticide companies should play an expanded role
OCR for page 277
DETECTION, MONITORING, AND RISK ASSESSMENT
277
in financing activities to monitor resistance and ultimately resistance-risk as-
sessment. Industry should concentrate on supporting research and monitoring
related to its individual products, while publicly funded institutions should em-
phasize activities such as basic research on monitoring methods and disseminating
monitoring information on resistance. Moreover, it is critical for the activities
and investments of the public and private sectors to be coordinated more sys-
tematically and integrated so that the best possible informational data base emerges
from a given level of combined resources.
Results of resistance-risk assessment programs should be available to the entire
pesticide development/user community for evaluation, confirmation, and im-
provement over time.
RECOMMENDATION 5. Programs should be developed to help decision~mak-
ers use information from resistance-risk assessment in pesticide related ac-
tivities such as pesticide design, regulatory programs, use directions, and
resistance management. Methods and means are needed to share results of
resistance-risk assessment programs among all users involved in pesticide
production, regulation, and use.
REFERENCES
Devonshire, A. L., and G. D. Moores. 1984. Immunoassay of carboxylesterase activity for iden-
tifying insecticide-resistant Myzus persicae. Pestic. Biochem. Physiol. 18:235-239.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 1982. Recommended methods for the detection and
measurement of resistance of agricultural pests to pesticides. Plant Protection Bull. 30:36 71 and
141-143.
Georgopoulos, S. G. 1982. Detection and measurement of fungicide resistance. Pp. 24-31 in
Fungicide Resistance in Crop Protection, J. Dekker and S. G. Georgopoulos, eds. Wageningen,
Netherlands: Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation.
Miyata, T. 1983. Detection and monitoring methods for resistance in arthropods. Pp. 99-116 in
Pest Resistance to Pesticides, G. P. Georghiou and T. Saito, eds. New York: Plenum.
Staub, T., and D. Sozzi. 1984. Fungicide resistance: A continuing challenge. Plant Dis. 68:102
1031.
WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS
Detection, Monitoring, and Risk Assessment
BRIAN A. CROFT (Leader), Oregon State University
KEITH J. BRENT, Long Ashton Research Station
WILLIAM BROGDON, Centers for Disease Control
THOMAS M. BROWN, Clemson University
C. F. CURTIS, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine
WILLIAM FRY, Cornell University
MAR~oR~E A. HoY, University of California, Berkeley
OCR for page 278
278
DETECTION, MONITORING, AND RISK ASSESSMENT
ALAN JONES, Michigan State University
JOHANNES KEIDING, Danish Pest Infestation Laboratory
JOSEPH M. OGAWA, University of California, Davis
STEVEN RADOSEVICH, Oregon State University
CHARLES STAETZ, FMC Corp.
T. STAUB, Ciba-Geigy, Ltd., Switzerland
ROBERT TONN, World Health Organization, Switzerland
MARK WHAEON, Michigan State University
Representative terms from entire chapter:
resistance monitoring
