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9.
The Antarctic Treaty as a Scientific
Mechanism (Post-IGY)- Contributions of
Antarctic Scientific Research
William F. Budd
INTRODUCTION
The main thesis of this chapter is that humankind's quest
for knowledge needs to be recognized as the primary
motivation for the high level of continued interest and
activity in the Antarctic. The treaty nations, through
the Antarctic Treaty System, have supported this
objective. Their fundamental basic tenets include
peaceful cooperation among nations, freedom of exchange
of results, and preservation of the antarctic
environment. The basic quest for knowledge was also the
primary motivation for the First International Polar Year
1882-1883 (Corby, 1982), the Second International Polar
Year 1932-1933 (Laursen, 1982) and the International
Geophysical Year (IGY) 1957-1958 (Nicolet, 1982). Much
of the new development activity in the Antarctic
initiated by the IGY has been continued and expanded in
the following period. This great post-IGY period of
scientific research in Antarctica has led to a knowledge
explosion producing an order of magnitude more
information than available pre-IGY. This extensive
antarctic information data base has become pervasive
through a large part of other basic scientific
disciplines. \
The importance of antarctic science in the general
scheme of scientific knowledge was early recognized by
the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) in
a 1957 agreement to form a Special Committee for Antarctic
Research, later to evolve into the Scientific Committee
on Antarctic Research (SCAR), of ICSU. Since the IGY,
SCAR has provided the international forum for exchange of
information on scientific research plans, activities,
results, logistics, management, and cooperation
103
OCR for page 104
104
The Antarctic Treaty System formed after SCAR provided
an international political framework for continued peace-
ful cooperation in antarctic research. Much of this
antarctic research is essentially international in charac-
ter and global in significance. For example, the atmo-
sphere and the oceans are not restrained by national
boundaries, nor are the marine nutrients or the biomass.
Consequently, other international bodies are also inter-
ested in the antarctic region; for example, the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the Intergovernmen-
tal Oceanographic Commission.
In recent years, increased attention has been focused
on the possible resource potential of Antarctica (cf.
Wright and Williams, 1974; Holdgate and Tinker, 1979;
Zumberge, 1979; Lovering and Prescott, 1979). More
detailed assessments, however, have revealed that eco-
nomically viable exploitation in the foreseeable future
is not a likely prospect and could therefore not provide
the rationale for supporting the expensive "big science"
inherent in the operation of continuing antarctic
expeditions (see, e.g., Behrendt, 1983a; Quilty, 1984;
Tingey, 1984).
On the other hand, the scientific information is
invaluable. For example, the global information set
required to extend weather forecasts to several days or
to understand interannual climatic fluctuations cannot
exclude data from such a large and influential region of
the Earth as the Antarctic. The impact of interannual
climatic fluctuations on agricultural production and the
global economy could be considered reason enough for a
continuing antarctic program aimed at increasing our
understanding of the global climate system. Antarctic
research is much broader than this, however, and has
impacted extensively on the wide spectrum of science.
few examples of the key role antarctic research has
played in the advancement of science are given below.
The treaty nations represent that group of nations
sufficiently interested in Antarctica to cover the
expense of antarctic field activities. One subgroup of
the members of SCAR includes the Southern Hemisphere
nations most nearly adjacent to Antarctica: Argentina,
Australia, Chile, New Zealand, and South Africa. The
remainder tend to be technologically advanced, high-
northern-latitude nations with strong traditional polar
interests: Belgium, France, the Federal Republic of
Germany, the German Democratic Republic, Japan, Norway,
OCR for page 105
105
Poland, the United Kingdom, the USSR, and the United
States. Some nations, although perhaps similarly classi-
fied, have extensive Arctic activities, for example,
Denmark and Canada.
The treaty nations have been prolific in their research
and publications.
These publications have become univer-
sally available and extensively disseminated in inter-
national scientific literature. This means that any
nation can now become active in antarctic research through
the analysis of an immense amount of data. This is par-
ticularly relevant when it is realized that the antarctic
region provides an excellent resource for global monitor-
ing of the environment. It is a mark of the importance
of Antarctica on the global scene that, now, tropical
nations such as India and Brazil have joined SCAR, and
other nations of the U.N. have expressed interest in
Antarctica.
THE POST-IGY INTERNATIONAL ANTARCTICA QUARTER CENTURY
The continuation and expansion of many of the antarctic
activities initiated during the ICY has lead to a quarter-
century accumulation of antarctic knowledge. In addition,
the advancement of technology and science generally has
resulted in a greatly increased capacity for antarctic
data collection and research. Some examples of these
advances include satellites for remote sensing, geodetic
location, and communications, automatic stations and
drifting buoys, aircraft remote sensing and ice thickness
sounding, deep ice core drilling, and sophisticated ice
core analyses.
In particular, the polar-orbiting satellites have been
greatly improved and now provide a data bank of many
years' complete mosaic coverage of the globe, including
the polar regions, as illustrated in Figure 9-1. The
cloud imagery depicts the high concentration of intense
cyclones around the edge of the Antarctic. These large
systems play a major role in the global weather and
climate system.
The antarctic stations as shown in Figure 9-2 form an
extensive coverage of both surface and upper-air observa-
tions essential for extended weather prediction. The
already archived data are invaluable for testing models
and theories of global circulation and the causes of
climatic change.
OCR for page 106
106
(a)
OS~o CM::7
(b)
~ ~ 30 Go,
~~S ~ ~~- `- ~
~ ~ \
. 2'^0 /
\~):sot
\ J1930~=,1
SUP
FIGURE 9-1 Examples of: (a) a satellite thermal
infrared mosaic of Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere
produced from National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) Nimbus 6 data on March 1.9, 1980;
and (b) typical orbits of a polar-orbiting satellite
system.
OCR for page 107
107
The antarctic continent has also been gradually mor e
fully covered by oversnow traverses, as shown in Figure
9-3. These traverses collect a wide range of data,
including snow accumulation and ice thickness, crucial
for understanding the ice sheet mass balance and its
implications for global sea level changes.
The ice thickness distribution has been more exten-
sively determined from aerial radio echo sounding, as
shown by a compilation of flight lines in Figure 9-4.
Th is type of work has resulted in construction of detailed
maps of the major features of the Antarctic. Earlier
versions post-IGY include the U.S. Antarctic Map Folio
Series Folio 2 by Bentley et al. (1964) and the Soviet
Antarctic Atlas (Bakayev, 1966). A more recent folio,
including extensive aerial sounding data, has been
produced by the Scott Polar Research Institute (Drewry,
1983).
Other landmark results include the features of the
ocean, particularly from the voyages of the Ob (USSR) and
the Eltanin (USA; cf. Gordon and Goldberq, 1970): the
marine life (E)alech
1969); the bedrock geology, land morphology, and
~ _
_ _ _ , _ , ,
et al., 1968: and Be and Heduneth,
sediments (Craddock et al., 1970; Heezen et al., 1972;
and Goodell et al., 1973); the sea ice from satellite
sensing (Zwally et al., 1983); the upper atmosphere
(Penwdorf_ al., 1964, and Waynik, 1965); and the
climate (see, e.g., Weyant, 1967; and Schwerdtfeger,
1970, 1984) .
Many comprehensive reviews of the progress in antarctic
science have been produced (see, e.g., Quam, 1971 ; Wash-
burn, 1980; Polar Group, 1980; and McWhinnie and Denys,
1978) .
The extensive resulting publications are considered
further below. For the present it is apparent that
scientific achievements of the period have been immense.
Many data centers around the world provide an extensive
service for archiving and accessing data at low cost to
other users. In regard to the provision of scientific
information for the global community, antarctic
activities have been very successful.
THE PROFITABLE NONRENEWABLE RESOURCES FALLACY
In recent times, consideration has been given to the
possibility that the potential of the Antarctic for
economic resources could lead to international conflic t
(see, e.g., Auburn 1977, 1982, 1984; and Sollie 1983) .
OCR for page 108
108
O \ lOOOkm ·Tristan da Cunha
I \\1 'Cough ~Isbnd
\ 0°
~ -
7 SOUTH
I AMERICA
,AR 9, Isiands - \R 5 \ /
SOUTH AFRICa
/~South Sandwich
/ a,UK 1\-. Islands
/South Georgia\'
Falkland AR ~ ~ \ cow
Bouvet~ so 2
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US 1,,
hi:,::::\
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I Not
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NZ 2~ b 11 ~ \ Tasmania
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FIGURE 9-2 Location and nationality of the network of
antarctic meteorological stations involved in routine
surface and upper air observations "modified from SCAR,
1984) (Reprinted with permission). .
OCR for page 109
109
KEY FOR FIGURE 9-2
Argentina
AR1 Belgrano II, 77°51' S. 34°33' W
AR3 Orcadas, 60°45' S. 44°43' W
AR5 Esperanza, 63°24' S. 56°59' W
AR6 Marambio, 64°14' S. 56°38' W
AR7 San Martin, 68°07' S. 67°08' W
AR8 Primavera, 64°09' S. 60°57' W
AR9 Jubany, 62°14' S. 58°38' W
Australia
AU1 Davis, 68°35' S. 77°58' E
AU2 Mawson, 67°36' S. 62°52' E
AU3 Casey, 66°17' S. 110°32' E
AU4 *Macquarie Island, 54°30' S.
158°56' E
Brazil
BR1 Comandante Ferraz, 62°05' S.
58°23' W
Chile
CH1 Capitan Arturo Prat, 62°30' S.
59°41' W
CH2 General Bernado O'Higgins,
63°19' S. 57°54' W
CH3 Tenient Rodolfo Marsh, 62°12' S.
58°54' W
Federal Republic of Germany
FG1 Georg von Neumayer, 70°37' S.
8°22' W
France
FR1 Dumont
140°01' E
FR2 *Alfred-Faure, Iles Crozet, 46°26'
S. 51°52'E
FR3 *Martin-de-Vivies, Ile Amster-
dam, 37°50' S. 77°34' E
FR4 *Port-aux-Francais, Iles Kergue-
len, 49°21' S. 70° 12' E
d'Urville, 66°40' S.
India
IN1 Dakshin Gangotri, 70°05' S.
12°00' E
Japan
JAI Syowa, 69°00' S. 30°35' E
JA2 Mizuho, 70°42' S. 44°20' E
New Zealand
NZ 1 Scott Base, 77°51' S. 166°45' E
NZ2 *Campbell Island, 52°33' S.
169°09' E
Poland
PO1 Arctowski, 62°09' S. 58°28' W
South Africa
SA3
SA1 Sanae, 70°18' S. 02°24' W
SA2 *Marion Island, Prince Edward
Islands, 46°53' S. 37°52' E
*Gough Island, 40°21 ' S. 09°53' W
United Kingdom
UK1 *Bird Island, South Georgia,
54°00' S. 38°03' W
UK2 Faraday, Argentine Islands, 65°15'
S. 64°16' W
UK4 Halley, Caird Coast, 75°35' S;
26°40' W
UK5 Rothera, Adelaide Island, 67°34'
S. 68°07' W
UK6 Signy, South Orkney Islands,
60°43' S. 45°36' W
United States of America
US1 Amundsen-Scott, 90°S
US2 McMurdo, 77°51' S. 166°40' E
US3 Palmer, 64°46' S. 64°03' W
OCR for page 110
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(Area 1: 0.33 x 106km2 or 2.4%) compared with that in the
Australian Antarctic Territory (Area 2: .011 x 106km2).
OCR for page 113
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Such possibilities have lead to extensive activities in
(1) Evaluation of resource potential estimates,
(2) Evaluation of possible environmental consequences
of exploitation,
(3) Consideration of legal and political implications
of resource-oriented activities,
(4) Increased interest of the wider international
community in the Antarctic as a resource prospect,
and
(5) The diversion of antarctic science programs toward
resource-oriented topics.
It is a thesis of this chapter that these activities
are heavily premised on the idea that Antarctica may have
significant economically exploitable resources within the
foreseeable future.
It is here contended that
(1) If resources are being sought, there are far more
prospective sources elsewhere, and
(2) The redirection of antarctic activities toward
resource-oriented questions may detract from the more
important objectives of basic and applied scientific
research.
To support these contentions, four examples are dis-
cussed: (1) land-based minerals, (2) offshore minerals,
(3) marine living resources, and (4) ice as a water
resource.
(1) The antarctic rock exposures are small in total
area by continental standards, they are widely dispersed
over the continent, and they are generally in highly
inaccessible locations. Working in the Antarctic for
mineral extraction would be very costly. To place this
in perspective, Figure 9-5 shows the antarctic continent
compared with Australia. The small area of total exposed
antarctic rock in the Australian Antarctic Territory
represents a small fraction of western Australia, where
wide range of easily accessible minerals is relatively
abundant. Similar comparisons with the other, larger
continental land masses are also valid. The rest of the
antarctic continent is covered in ice, averaging about
2.5 km in thickness. This makes the rock underneath
largely inaccessible. The ice, however, does offer a
greater real prospect as a renewable resource.
a
OCR for page 142
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144
regarded as an international park--perhaps the greatest
natural park in the world--then the treaty nations could
be regarded as working for the U.N., and the global
community as "antarctic rangers" through the SCAR-ICSU
system, to ensure that the laudable principles of the
Antarctic Treaty are maintained.
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
antarctic map
