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9. The Antarctic Treaty as a Scientific Mechanism (Post-IGY)- Contributions of Antarctic Scientific Research William F. Budd INTRODUCTION The main thesis of this chapter is that humankind's quest for knowledge needs to be recognized as the primary motivation for the high level of continued interest and activity in the Antarctic. The treaty nations, through the Antarctic Treaty System, have supported this objective. Their fundamental basic tenets include peaceful cooperation among nations, freedom of exchange of results, and preservation of the antarctic environment. The basic quest for knowledge was also the primary motivation for the First International Polar Year 1882-1883 (Corby, 1982), the Second International Polar Year 1932-1933 (Laursen, 1982) and the International Geophysical Year (IGY) 1957-1958 (Nicolet, 1982). Much of the new development activity in the Antarctic initiated by the IGY has been continued and expanded in the following period. This great post-IGY period of scientific research in Antarctica has led to a knowledge explosion producing an order of magnitude more information than available pre-IGY. This extensive antarctic information data base has become pervasive through a large part of other basic scientific disciplines. \ The importance of antarctic science in the general scheme of scientific knowledge was early recognized by the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) in a 1957 agreement to form a Special Committee for Antarctic Research, later to evolve into the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR), of ICSU. Since the IGY, SCAR has provided the international forum for exchange of information on scientific research plans, activities, results, logistics, management, and cooperation 103
104 The Antarctic Treaty System formed after SCAR provided an international political framework for continued peace- ful cooperation in antarctic research. Much of this antarctic research is essentially international in charac- ter and global in significance. For example, the atmo- sphere and the oceans are not restrained by national boundaries, nor are the marine nutrients or the biomass. Consequently, other international bodies are also inter- ested in the antarctic region; for example, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the Intergovernmen- tal Oceanographic Commission. In recent years, increased attention has been focused on the possible resource potential of Antarctica (cf. Wright and Williams, 1974; Holdgate and Tinker, 1979; Zumberge, 1979; Lovering and Prescott, 1979). More detailed assessments, however, have revealed that eco- nomically viable exploitation in the foreseeable future is not a likely prospect and could therefore not provide the rationale for supporting the expensive "big science" inherent in the operation of continuing antarctic expeditions (see, e.g., Behrendt, 1983a; Quilty, 1984; Tingey, 1984). On the other hand, the scientific information is invaluable. For example, the global information set required to extend weather forecasts to several days or to understand interannual climatic fluctuations cannot exclude data from such a large and influential region of the Earth as the Antarctic. The impact of interannual climatic fluctuations on agricultural production and the global economy could be considered reason enough for a continuing antarctic program aimed at increasing our understanding of the global climate system. Antarctic research is much broader than this, however, and has impacted extensively on the wide spectrum of science. few examples of the key role antarctic research has played in the advancement of science are given below. The treaty nations represent that group of nations sufficiently interested in Antarctica to cover the expense of antarctic field activities. One subgroup of the members of SCAR includes the Southern Hemisphere nations most nearly adjacent to Antarctica: Argentina, Australia, Chile, New Zealand, and South Africa. The remainder tend to be technologically advanced, high- northern-latitude nations with strong traditional polar interests: Belgium, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, the German Democratic Republic, Japan, Norway,
105 Poland, the United Kingdom, the USSR, and the United States. Some nations, although perhaps similarly classi- fied, have extensive Arctic activities, for example, Denmark and Canada. The treaty nations have been prolific in their research and publications. These publications have become univer- sally available and extensively disseminated in inter- national scientific literature. This means that any nation can now become active in antarctic research through the analysis of an immense amount of data. This is par- ticularly relevant when it is realized that the antarctic region provides an excellent resource for global monitor- ing of the environment. It is a mark of the importance of Antarctica on the global scene that, now, tropical nations such as India and Brazil have joined SCAR, and other nations of the U.N. have expressed interest in Antarctica. THE POST-IGY INTERNATIONAL ANTARCTICA QUARTER CENTURY The continuation and expansion of many of the antarctic activities initiated during the ICY has lead to a quarter- century accumulation of antarctic knowledge. In addition, the advancement of technology and science generally has resulted in a greatly increased capacity for antarctic data collection and research. Some examples of these advances include satellites for remote sensing, geodetic location, and communications, automatic stations and drifting buoys, aircraft remote sensing and ice thickness sounding, deep ice core drilling, and sophisticated ice core analyses. In particular, the polar-orbiting satellites have been greatly improved and now provide a data bank of many years' complete mosaic coverage of the globe, including the polar regions, as illustrated in Figure 9-1. The cloud imagery depicts the high concentration of intense cyclones around the edge of the Antarctic. These large systems play a major role in the global weather and climate system. The antarctic stations as shown in Figure 9-2 form an extensive coverage of both surface and upper-air observa- tions essential for extended weather prediction. The already archived data are invaluable for testing models and theories of global circulation and the causes of climatic change.
106 (a) OS~o CM::7 (b) ~ ~ 30 Go, ~~S ~ ~~- `- ~ ~ ~ \ . 2'^0 / \~):sot \ J1930~=,1 SUP FIGURE 9-1 Examples of: (a) a satellite thermal infrared mosaic of Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere produced from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Nimbus 6 data on March 1.9, 1980; and (b) typical orbits of a polar-orbiting satellite system.
107 The antarctic continent has also been gradually mor e fully covered by oversnow traverses, as shown in Figure 9-3. These traverses collect a wide range of data, including snow accumulation and ice thickness, crucial for understanding the ice sheet mass balance and its implications for global sea level changes. The ice thickness distribution has been more exten- sively determined from aerial radio echo sounding, as shown by a compilation of flight lines in Figure 9-4. Th is type of work has resulted in construction of detailed maps of the major features of the Antarctic. Earlier versions post-IGY include the U.S. Antarctic Map Folio Series Folio 2 by Bentley et al. (1964) and the Soviet Antarctic Atlas (Bakayev, 1966). A more recent folio, including extensive aerial sounding data, has been produced by the Scott Polar Research Institute (Drewry, 1983). Other landmark results include the features of the ocean, particularly from the voyages of the Ob (USSR) and the Eltanin (USA; cf. Gordon and Goldberq, 1970): the marine life (E)alech 1969); the bedrock geology, land morphology, and ~ _ _ _ _ , _ , , et al., 1968: and Be and Heduneth, sediments (Craddock et al., 1970; Heezen et al., 1972; and Goodell et al., 1973); the sea ice from satellite sensing (Zwally et al., 1983); the upper atmosphere (Penwdorf_ al., 1964, and Waynik, 1965); and the climate (see, e.g., Weyant, 1967; and Schwerdtfeger, 1970, 1984) . Many comprehensive reviews of the progress in antarctic science have been produced (see, e.g., Quam, 1971 ; Wash- burn, 1980; Polar Group, 1980; and McWhinnie and Denys, 1978) . The extensive resulting publications are considered further below. For the present it is apparent that scientific achievements of the period have been immense. Many data centers around the world provide an extensive service for archiving and accessing data at low cost to other users. In regard to the provision of scientific information for the global community, antarctic activities have been very successful. THE PROFITABLE NONRENEWABLE RESOURCES FALLACY In recent times, consideration has been given to the possibility that the potential of the Antarctic for economic resources could lead to international conflic t (see, e.g., Auburn 1977, 1982, 1984; and Sollie 1983) .
108 O \ lOOOkm ·Tristan da Cunha I \\1 'Cough ~Isbnd \ 0° ~ - 7 SOUTH I AMERICA ,AR 9, Isiands - \R 5 \ / SOUTH AFRICa /~South Sandwich / a,UK 1\-. Islands /South Georgia\' Falkland AR ~ ~ \ cow Bouvet~ so 2 ^,.",:.~2 a.... US 1,, hi:,::::\ \::::2 :22 "1 1 I Not / \Prince Edward / \ Island ~ \FR IS \ Crozet ·W _ 4,\,\~. - \ \ AU 4 Macquarie- ' Island/ NZ 2~ b 11 ~ \ Tasmania ~ - 50°~ Island \ 180 FEW ~ ~ ZEA LAND FIGURE 9-2 Location and nationality of the network of antarctic meteorological stations involved in routine surface and upper air observations "modified from SCAR, 1984) (Reprinted with permission). .
109 KEY FOR FIGURE 9-2 Argentina AR1 Belgrano II, 77°51' S. 34°33' W AR3 Orcadas, 60°45' S. 44°43' W AR5 Esperanza, 63°24' S. 56°59' W AR6 Marambio, 64°14' S. 56°38' W AR7 San Martin, 68°07' S. 67°08' W AR8 Primavera, 64°09' S. 60°57' W AR9 Jubany, 62°14' S. 58°38' W Australia AU1 Davis, 68°35' S. 77°58' E AU2 Mawson, 67°36' S. 62°52' E AU3 Casey, 66°17' S. 110°32' E AU4 *Macquarie Island, 54°30' S. 158°56' E Brazil BR1 Comandante Ferraz, 62°05' S. 58°23' W Chile CH1 Capitan Arturo Prat, 62°30' S. 59°41' W CH2 General Bernado O'Higgins, 63°19' S. 57°54' W CH3 Tenient Rodolfo Marsh, 62°12' S. 58°54' W Federal Republic of Germany FG1 Georg von Neumayer, 70°37' S. 8°22' W France FR1 Dumont 140°01' E FR2 *Alfred-Faure, Iles Crozet, 46°26' S. 51°52'E FR3 *Martin-de-Vivies, Ile Amster- dam, 37°50' S. 77°34' E FR4 *Port-aux-Francais, Iles Kergue- len, 49°21' S. 70° 12' E d'Urville, 66°40' S. India IN1 Dakshin Gangotri, 70°05' S. 12°00' E Japan JAI Syowa, 69°00' S. 30°35' E JA2 Mizuho, 70°42' S. 44°20' E New Zealand NZ 1 Scott Base, 77°51' S. 166°45' E NZ2 *Campbell Island, 52°33' S. 169°09' E Poland PO1 Arctowski, 62°09' S. 58°28' W South Africa SA3 SA1 Sanae, 70°18' S. 02°24' W SA2 *Marion Island, Prince Edward Islands, 46°53' S. 37°52' E *Gough Island, 40°21 ' S. 09°53' W United Kingdom UK1 *Bird Island, South Georgia, 54°00' S. 38°03' W UK2 Faraday, Argentine Islands, 65°15' S. 64°16' W UK4 Halley, Caird Coast, 75°35' S; 26°40' W UK5 Rothera, Adelaide Island, 67°34' S. 68°07' W UK6 Signy, South Orkney Islands, 60°43' S. 45°36' W United States of America US1 Amundsen-Scott, 90°S US2 McMurdo, 77°51' S. 166°40' E US3 Palmer, 64°46' S. 64°03' W
110 o ,4 o a) o SO a) _ A ~ a,, ° ~ · - 3 of s a) ~ 3 o · - ~ V ·- A, o ~ Co 1 ~ m c' 0 H ~' ED -
111 r>: ~ Y_y_N2 I aim Id ~ :~. ~.~:::-.- 2 0,` ~ ~ ~ I ~;li ~I;i-'~ ., p ~ _, ~ . =_. X ·% _ ., ,..¢, - `,.,. By i', a) ~ _ O ~ ~ Go o m U] 0 ~ ~ ·` 0 1_ US I, ~ 0 ~5 at; ·- 0D 0 ~ 0 ,_, - ~ En 0 ~ U] .,1 >' ~5 3 ~ a) \ ~ ~~4 o., ~~, At, _ _ _ Q ..
112 fat lo ~ ' ,~5 J~sJ l - - - __ _- ~ m 1 1 \ Jo ~ \J ~ r ( \ ' ~1 - FIGURE 9-5 Relative areas of exposed rock in the Antarctic (Area 1: 0.33 x 106km2 or 2.4%) compared with that in the Australian Antarctic Territory (Area 2: .011 x 106km2).
113 Such possibilities have lead to extensive activities in (1) Evaluation of resource potential estimates, (2) Evaluation of possible environmental consequences of exploitation, (3) Consideration of legal and political implications of resource-oriented activities, (4) Increased interest of the wider international community in the Antarctic as a resource prospect, and (5) The diversion of antarctic science programs toward resource-oriented topics. It is a thesis of this chapter that these activities are heavily premised on the idea that Antarctica may have significant economically exploitable resources within the foreseeable future. It is here contended that (1) If resources are being sought, there are far more prospective sources elsewhere, and (2) The redirection of antarctic activities toward resource-oriented questions may detract from the more important objectives of basic and applied scientific research. To support these contentions, four examples are dis- cussed: (1) land-based minerals, (2) offshore minerals, (3) marine living resources, and (4) ice as a water resource. (1) The antarctic rock exposures are small in total area by continental standards, they are widely dispersed over the continent, and they are generally in highly inaccessible locations. Working in the Antarctic for mineral extraction would be very costly. To place this in perspective, Figure 9-5 shows the antarctic continent compared with Australia. The small area of total exposed antarctic rock in the Australian Antarctic Territory represents a small fraction of western Australia, where wide range of easily accessible minerals is relatively abundant. Similar comparisons with the other, larger continental land masses are also valid. The rest of the antarctic continent is covered in ice, averaging about 2.5 km in thickness. This makes the rock underneath largely inaccessible. The ice, however, does offer a greater real prospect as a renewable resource. a
114 (2) The prospects for offshore hydrocarbon resources around Antarctica have been frequently alluded to (see, e.g., Holdgate and Tinker, 1979; and Lovering and Prescott, 1979). The most prospective continental shelf region is also the region of most highly concentrated large icebergs, which, as shown by Figure 9-6, move around the coast in the eastwind drift current like a conveyor belt. A technique for extracting offshore hydrocarbons in regions of large icebergs (which may be kilometers in extent) has not yet been devised, let alone proven. Even then the cost of extraction would be high and would have to be competitive with known large resources from other sources, for example, shale oil, tar sands, coal conversion, and renewable fuel crops. The prospects for commercial ventures in the Antarctic, therefore, must be rated very low (cf. Quilty, 1984; and Behrendt, 1983b). Nevertheless, it needs to be emphasized that antarctic research into offshore sediments is invaluable for studying the processes and conditions of formations of the continental margin sediments in general, particularly in relation to those of neighboring continents. For future generations, when other, lower cost sources of nonrenewable hydrocarbons have been depleted, advances in technology may make any antarctic prospects more feasible. (3) With regard to the resource potential of the marine biomass around Antarctica, it is well recognized that antarctic waters are highly productive (see, e.g., Laws, 1983; Chittleborough, 1984). The mechanisms involved in productivity are not well known and are very complex (Tranter, 1982, 1984). Furthermore, there have been gross imbalances caused to the marine life by past human exploitation activities, as shown in Figure 9-7 (from Chittleborough, 1984). Unbridled harvesting of species such as krill could lead to loss of an important renewable resource. Therefore, a long-term project of measurement and monitoring is required to understand interrelations among the biota before the real resource potential can be determined. Such a program is being addressed by the SCAR-sponsored program entitled Bio- logical Investigations of Marine Antarctic Systems and Stocks (cf. Laws, 1983). The intergovernmental Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources also carries out this function. (4) Since renewed interest in the prospects for using icebergs as a water resource was raised in the early 1970s (see, e.g., Weeks and Campbell, 1973a, 1973b), a
115 / / ,,/ '` - P.lr~e ~: 2 O No Icebergs visible 1 leebergs rare or at l'~ctvals IceLcrgs visible con- tinuously within visible hori20s ~ Vat opts coy. 4 Open cover S )Jediun' cover Substantial cove, 7 Close cover' ~hi`' oust C1~:39e course 8 Very close cover; ship must ch_~'e course Ircqu~tly 9 Extremely close cove navigation is possible only by meneuvelag a, hissing the iceberg conceatlons that Boar dims [cola ~ solid ban1. ·~W ~ 6 0 - \ \ \ \ amp/ ~ 15~1190o ~ `\~ ~ race \ \ \ \ ~~\~\` \ f,,/~//,j/ ~/~/- ~,'' '' Points be__ ___~ Scale me on I arlTIlnF ° Oo 30( - - OJ 20t D 1 0 / / l l / 65 60 ; S5 50 45 g 15OO 0` 8 1 000 2000 ~ 0 ~5 DISTANCE FRO', COAST km FIGURE 9-6 Average concentrations of icebergs around Antarctica from the Soviet Antarctic Atlas (from Bakayev, 1966; and Morgan and Budd, 1978) (Reprinted with permission).
116 400 _% cr) o - 2 200 c a - ~0 - n 100 o - minke \ \ fin ~ \ crabeater (xl Os) humpback \ /~/ / /\ - ~ fur 1910 1920 1930 t940 t950 1960 1970 1980 time FIGURE 9-7 Major changes in the antarctic oceans biomass associated with past harvesting activities, as given by (Chittleborough, 1984 ) (Repr inted with permission) .
117 great deal of new research on icebergs has been carried out. This work has resulted in several international conferences (see, e.g., Husseiny, 1978 and the Annals of Glaciology, Vol. 1), an international monitoring program, and publication of an international news magazine, Iceberg Research. The more recent reviews of problems and prospects have indicated that, judging from the results obtained so far, the topic is worthy of further consideration, and icebergs as useful resources could be beneficial to some Southern Hemisphere cities such as Perth and Adelaide (cf. Schwerdtfeger, 1979; Budd et al., 1980; Russell-Head, 1980; and Lawson and Russell-Head, 1983). A practical scheme for utilizing icebergs requires an iceberg several hundred meters in horizontal extent, such as those depicted in Figure 9-8. Much larger icebergs are difficult to tow, while much smaller icebergs could be expected to have largely melted before reaching the destination. To test the scheme further, a series of well-instrumented trial towing and melt-rate experiments would be useful. In the interim, it appears that the iceberg water could be quite competitive with other sources of fresh water, particularly in times of drought. ANTARCTICA AS A GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE RESOURCE Although little direct commercial exploitation of the Antarctic can be expected in the medium term, it needs to be recognized that the antarctic region is invaluable as a resource for scientific research, particularly for the environmental sciences that help us better to manage our planet. It is generally understood that the well-being of advanced technological societies is largely due to the scientific research and development of previous genera- . tionse One important question that needs to be addressed - is, "What kind of planet shall we be leaving for follow- ing generations?" This question needs to be examined with reference to the impacts already made on the environment and the contributions that can be made by antarctic research toward alleviating future problems, such as (1) The change in balance of the antarctic marine biota from past harvesting regimes (Figure 9-7 Chittleborough, 1984),
17 Id: it: : : :~: ~ ~~::~ ~ ~ - o ~ ~ - ~ o a,) A' ~ [Q so o ~= a, ·- Q a' ~ .- .~ o~ O Go a' V - ~ - lo: ao 1 , ~5 1 a' ~ I m 1 1 1 ~ O | H ~ lo,, _
119 (2) m e continuing impact on long-term climatic trends from continued CO2 production, (3) Possible effects on the antarctic mass balance and future sea level changes from climatic warming, and (4) Possible changes in the ocean and marine biosphere from reduced sea ice cover following climatic warming. In addition, there are many ways in which antarctic data are invaluable in contributing to global problem- solving and research. For example: (1) Because of the increased environmental stress caused by growing human populations, climatic fluctuations even in the present era, such as the E1 Nino and Southern Oscillation episodes, can have major social and economic impacts. The antarctic region is an integral part of this global climate system and, particularly with regard to sea ice, needs to be studied along with changes in the atmosphere and ocean. (2) Antarctic rock and sediments provide the unique resource of an additional continent to further better understanding of the development and origin of rocks, the history of the formation of the continents, and the development of deep sediments. (3) It is one of the great discoveries in the Antarctic that certain parts of the ice sheet are the world's greatest sources of meteorites. Already there is an extensive literature base on antarctic meteorites (cf. Nagata, 1983). (4) The ice sheet offers a unique resource for studying past climate from the analysis of deep ice cores. Information is also obtained on other features, such as volcanic and anthropogenic fallout, atmospheric gases, cosmic activity, global ice volume, and sea level. (5) m e antarctic region is important as a location for monitoring the upper atmosphere, the ionosphere, and solar terrestrial relations. This information is of fundamental importance for high-frequency telecommunications. (6) Finally, it needs to be re-emphasized that the antarctic stations provide a unique resource for meteorological measurements, particularly upper air soundings to provide the initial states required by numerical modeling for weather prediction. The Southern Hemisphere is very
120 sparsely covered compared to the Northern Hemisphere. The antarctic and Southern Ocean island stations play an important role in contributing to hemispheric and global coverage. ANTARCTIC PUBLICATIONS AND THE KNOWLEDGE EXPLOS ION Although antarctic scientists may be well aware of the wide impact of antarctic science within the general science literature, it may be of interest to try to quantify the impact since the IGY. This task is worthy of a much more thorough analysis than is attempted here, but this review can be regarded simply as a very pre- liminary survey of the publications. In the first case, only the numbers of publications for the different fields over time and from different nations are considered. This leaves quite open the types of publications and their depth. No doubt this approach has inherent biases and therefore should not be used to infer relative merit without more detailed study. Techniques of citation analysis also provide a means of gauging relative interest in various topics as well as other relative measures of impact. This section therefore summarizes some of the results of publications analysis in a general way, and the next section gives some examples of the specific highlights resulting from antarctic research. As a first indication of the extent of antarctic publications and how they have changed over time, various bibliographies and data bases are useful. For example, the U.S. Library of Congress' Antarctic Bibliography is one such source. This series has 14 volumes from 1961 to July 1984, containing 30,097 abstracts. Another single volume with an additional 4,773 abstracts extends the series back in time to cover the period 1951-1961. About one third of this group could be regarded as post-IGY. The full series, therefore, serves to show the large order-of-magnitude increase in antarctic publications during the quarter century following the IGY. Figure 9-9 illustrates this continuing growth of antarctic publications as well as a tendency toward increasing growth rates. In order to compare the post-1950 publications numbers with those from earlier times, reference is also made to The Antarctic, 1739-1957, Vol. III of the Bibliography of Regional Meteorological Literature, produced by the South African Weather Bureau and compiled by Venter and Burdecka (1966). Although not directly comparable with the Library of Congress bibliography, it provides an
122 independent listing with a breakdown into some of the important environmental disciplines. Table 9-1 shows the numbers of publications in these different categories from 1739 to 1957. It can therefore serve as a pre-IGY compilation, going back to the earliest times for antarc- tic publications. It should be noted that its limitation to topics related to meteorology omits the two large discipline areas of biology (apart from bioclimatology) and geology. Nevertheless, the total numbers of publica- tions and the breakdown into the other categories are _~ useful for comparison with the Library of Congress series in later years, as shown in Table 9-1. An independent analysis of recent publications from the national reports to SCAR given by Budd (1984) is shown in Table 9-2. Although the categories again are somewhat different, because they were based on the SCAR disciplines, the relative numbers in the different disciplines are similar. This table also shows national preferences for some disciplines in antarctic activities and the totals for the different nations for this recent period are compared with the national origins of literature in the Library of Congress compilation for the earlier period in Table 9-3. The average rate for the total publications of about 1,200/year compares with an average of 1,500/year from the Antarctic Bibliography. Evidence that this now large body of information obtained from antarctic research has made some impact on science generally has been provided in citation analysis by Cozzens (1981), Cozzens and Small (1982), and Guthridge (1983). From publications appearing between 1961 and 1978, the citation analysis was used to identify topics for which antarctic research had a significant role. From an analysis of 314 different journals, highly cited documents were identified in 189 different specialities. Of these highly cited specialities, 52 included citations of antarctic documents. A total of 2,942 papers appearing in the Antarctic Bibliography was cited by the journals at least once between 1961 and 1978. The total number of citations to antarctic literature was 28,974, giving an average citation rate per paper of about 10 over the period. From the list of 52 topics of the highly cited documents for which antarctic work was referenced, as given by Guthridge (1983), Table 9-4 lists the first 26. Guthridge reported that 84 antarctic papers published between 1961 and 1978 are regarded as citation classics (defined as having been cited more than 50 times during that period). Of the top 12 reported by Guthridge, , .
123 a, ~ CD dP ai c~~ _ ~a ~n a: ~ ~ ~: o ~ ~ . - ~ U) JJ ~ ~ a, O Z ~r JJ ~r ~D ~ r~ ~ ~ a, 0 ~ tD Un ~ ~ C:~ c~ ~ · _, s ~ s~, U] 0 o ~ ~ cn ~ ~ ~ _I ~ . - om U] ~ o ~ ~ ° o ~ ~ ~ 0 ~ tn ~ 0 a, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . - · - o o C) o ~ o~ ~ ~ Q~ >, o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ o ~ 4, U s O [q C~ c9 ~ ~ ~ O P4 CO r~ ~r ca o `4 ·rl n ~o -= 04 q~ ~ O ~o C~ o' r~ CO ~r N C~ U~ ~r" O ~r O O O O4 O O O O O O C~ O O O C~ ~n o JJ E~ O - m1 ~ -1 . - E~ U] o · - V ~rl 1 ~1 Q 3 V E~ ~ V s~ a' ~ o ~q a .,, .,, V ~Q .,, . - .,, O o' I ~o ~ CD a' ~| ~1 ~1 m ~ ~1 ~ °1 ~1 ~n o' 0 - ~D | N >,I ~ O ~ · - _. U~ Q, C C,. ~q ~ ~ r~ r~ ~ r ~s ~ ~ O ~ ° ~ . · . · · . . . . · · · ~ a CO 0 0 ~ ~° o~ \0 ~ ~ ~ ~r ~ 0 ~ u~ u · e · · · · U~ ~ ~ ~ CO CO r~ a' 0 ~ ~ ~ u' . · . · · . . . · · · · ~ ~D 01 ~ O O ~ ~ ~ a~ o~ tD ~ ~ u~ ~ U~ 0\ iD r~ u~ u~ ~ ~D ~ ~ CD . · . · · . . . . · · · ~ a' ~ ~ ~ ~ r~ co C~ ~ O CD ~ CO ~ tD U, · · ~ ~ ~ ~ tD O · · . ~ tD 0` ~ ~r · · . ~ cn o' ~ ~r ~ O · ~ O O O1 _I iD U~ ~ ~ · . · · ~ a' ~ ~ U, 01 ~ r~ · ~ ~r co · ~ ~ O · · ~o ~r ~ ~ · . . . u~ U~ a~ a~ O ~ O 0\ · . · . ~r ~ ~ co `0 ~ · . · . ~ ~ a' a' O ~ ~ ~D · . · . u~ ~ ~r ~ · . · ~ O ~D ~r ~ a, · . ~ ~ ~r 0 o iD O ~ t0 ~r ~ 0 ~ · · . · · . · . . U, O ~ ~ tD ~ u, ~ ~ . ~D a' ~ o~ · . . O ~ O U, · · ~ O ~ O · · . ~r ~ 0 · · . O u, u~ o, · · ~ ~ ~r 0 u~ ~r tD · · ~ o ~ o r~ 0 u~ r~ · · · ~ 0 ~ u ~ c ' ·~ ~ s~ u ~ ~ 0 SQ. o ~ 0 cq 0 C ca U Con ~ ~ ~ s U ~ `0- - U ~ U ~ ~ 0 ~ ~ ~ 0 Ll a: ~ p. .rl U )., ~ ~ U ~ · - E · - ~ O ~ s u ~ U U ~ a~ ~ ~ ~ ~ V~ ~ C ~ ~~ 41 ~4 0 D.I 0 ~ ·l h ~ O ~ ~ ~ 0 41 a~ 0 · - 04 U O c 0 0 4,~ a~ ~ a 4, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ·^ ·rl :~ =- - 4' ~ Q >1 ~ :> ~ O C O U ~ ~ o U ~ o~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ s ~ S e, ~ ~n ~ x ~ 0 U Q ~ 0 ~ a, v ~ ~ 4, ~ O m ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 ~ E~ o4 1 dP a' ~ u, ~ a' U-~4 S ·-1 o, 0 u ·^ ~ O ~ g s 0 ~- - ~ 4, ~ ~ cn° ~: ~= m ~ 0 `0 ~ CD oY o, O \0 ~ ~ · · · . · . . · · · ~ ~r ~ ~ ~ ~ _I ~ ~ ~ ~ u~ 0 u L' Q' ·0 0>~ U O~ h ~ O S E 4~ ~ · - ,a ~ ~ O ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ·r1 0 U O ~ C 0 ~ L. a) u ~ u ·^ · - 4, E ~ Q ~: ot C o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~- - ~ ~ ~ O · X ~ O el Q, ~ C] J~ dU :a ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 ~ ~ CO - ~3 a1 4, ~4
124 TABLE 9-2 National Origin of Antarctic Publications (a) Repor is Library of Conuressa ( % ) to SCARb 1962-1966 1968 1970 1972 1980-1983 (+) Nation Vol. 2 Vol. 3 Vol. 4 Vol. 5 ~ ~ _ Argentina 2.3 2. 2 1 1 0 .8 Australia 2.9 2.8 3 1.3 5.8 Chile 1 1 1.9 Feder al Republ ic 2 . 0 1 . 9 1 1 6 . 3 of Germany German Democratic 2.0 Republ ic France 7 . 3 3. 4 3 2.1 6.6 Japan 3.5 4.1 11 2.4 12.9 New Zealand 2 .8 3 . 2 4 . 5 6 .1 6 .7 Norway 1.1 2.2 1.2 South Af r ice 2 . 4 5 . 9 United Kingdom 14.1 10 .9 10 .5 11.0 16.9 USSR 27.8 30.2 19 21.7 15.0 U. S. . 28. 3 34. 3 41 39.4 18 .0 Others 9.0 5.9 11.5 8.4 A ~~ ~ - lne ancarcclc ~lollograpny en, tor (G. A. Doumani) noted that these statistics represent the numer ical proportions included in the volume and not the world's output of Antarctic literature. bFrom Table 3 (after Budd, 1984) from the SCAR members' annual national repor ts .
125 { - , ,, m- In ~ .,, 2 a, EN ~ in .,, .,, i) U] .,, Sot U] o a, a) ~ ~ o .,. at: a ,, lo set o o ., · ~ P4 .,, ~ , Q 1 .,1 ~ S A; o E-' 4~ o U) U] en I s ~5 ~ ~ s U] O JJ o a C~ C~ ~S o o a U2 1 0 O ~ CQ P. 1 o ,, O C' ~ 1 :> 0o g O 1 ~ s~ O O a :O m Z ~ 0 ~ O ~ CO ~ ~ ~ U~ CO O ~ 0D C~ O iD ~ ~ C~ ~r ~ ~ 0 CD C~ ~ ~ ~ U~ ~ kD ~ ~r ~ co ~r er ~ u~ oo ~r ~ co U~ U~ ~o _ ~ C~ ~ 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ U) 0 ~ U, ~ C~ ~ ~ oo ~ CO er _ ~ . U~ ~r r~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 C~ ~ C~ U~ _ _I - _ e O a' ~ ~r (D CO ~r ~ ~ ~ ~ u~ ~ ,-~ U1, - 1 t.D _ _I rn C~ - 00 ~ ~ u~ ~ kD _ ~ a, _I er o _ _ ~ 00 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ C~ N ~ ~1 ~ ~ 1 _ ~ _ _I ~ ~ CO ~ ~ ~ U~ Q iD ~ ~ 0 r~ .,, o - s: a ~ _ ~ cr~ ~ ~ co ~ ~ ~ a, o, _ _I ~ ~ ~o k° ~ ~ a, ~ ~ kD ~ oo ~ u~ ~ C~ o ~ ~ CD U) ~ ~ ~ o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ O c'- ~ C) ''t --~ ~~5 ~ Q ~ ~1 4J tIS · · a) a~ ~ ~ ~ 0 ~ tI5 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ C,, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 0) ~ ~1 . · ~ ~ 3 ~ ~ · ~ · ~ ~ O 3 ~ a; P 05 ~ 3 ~4 ~ ~ U] (J~ ~ ~ JJ S . · k4 ~ ~ O o · · U] · O C~ ~ ~ Z Z ~ U] ~ ~ ~ E~ U] · ~ U~ S JJ o s~ .,, 0 s~ S 0 0 :5 s~ 0 ~ O o tJ1 ~ Q s~ o O S o o, a) S ,4 0: n 0 ~, a) 0c ~ o ~ . - 0 . - .,,, o 0 0 · - 0 a, a) 0 ·~4 Q ta O JJ ~ S .,. .,, 0 ~ ~ O O ~:-- .~1 0 0 ~ . .,' ~:5 a) n s 3 0 0 ~ ~ 0 0 0 U] ~ ~ 0 0 V a) ·,, ~ ~ ~ S 'O U] · - ~ 0 0 H ·~1 ~ ~Q ~ O S ~ 0
126 C to . ~ I, ;3 ·- V CQ a . - ·'S REV C)D ~ A, C) so 0 ra V V i-, ~ $¢ a, 3 s m a., 0 ~ a, Q US $,, ] ~ O ~ V O ~ en Al "l en . - U) ' - C,Q a' s En ,4 · - V U] :^ .,, en eQ O -- ~ 0 ·- 0 al 0 ~ ~ V a) ~ ~ ~ ~ ~= O ~ ~ ~ £ V Q ·- a, O V ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ O ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ O ~ ~ CQ ~ ~ ~ '- ~ ~ S S ~ .- 0 V ~ o ~V 0~ ~ -0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ · - .,' 0 · - JJ ~ ~ 0 V · - 0 ~ ~ ~ O ·, O ~ ~ ~ ~ ~^ 3 ~-- v ~ ~0 ~ 3 s 3 O ~ ~ X ~ ~ O V ~ ·,' ~ ~ ~ 0 .. ~ . - ·- V V :,., _, ·,4 ~ a, tQ O ~ · - ~ · - S V ~ V X ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ eQ O · - O · - ~ ~ ~ ~ S ~ ~ ~ ·- ~ ~ £ V ~ ~ ~ 0 0 s O ~ ~ C) ~ ·~- - CQ m- - V ~ V ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ O ~ =- - 0 ·rl 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ 3 O ~ V ~ ~ ~ ~ O O O ~ S O ~ O tR O a, ~ ~ Q ·- ~ ~ V O ~ ~ 0 ~ O ~ m~ 3 ~ ~ 0 a, a) ~ ~ ·-I- - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ JJ u~ ~ <~ `~ `~ o; ~ m P~ ~: =: E~ U~ 0 · - = ~n V .Q cn ~ 0 ~ CQ ~ 0 · - ~ V ~ 0 0 · - ~ ~ 0 ~ 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ V ~ ~ ~ · - V ~ O ~ ~ ~ 0 0 .~1 1 N ~ ~ ·^ S ~ 3 0) 0 ~ 0 C) a~ a~ V ~ v 0 0 s~ dJ ~-- a, ~ ~ ~ 0 0 v ·. ,= ~ ~ ~ GS ~ ~ ~ · - 0 V Q. JJ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ O ~1 V ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 O V o ~ 0 ~ a' ~ ~ ~ 3 ~,.- ~ ~ v `2, a ~, a~ ~rs 0 a) =~ 0 tn ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ U ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ · - ~ ~, ~ ~^ ~ s m.- a, ~0 ~ t) ~ ~ u ~ · - ~ ~ ~ ~ 3 S o - - ~ 3 · - 0 ~ ~ ~' ~ o s ~ S Q. ~ ~ ~ s ~ ~ o ~ a, a' ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 V ~ 0 ~ ~ O V O ~ ~ _' ~ ~ ~ · - 1 ~ O U O ~ O ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Q ~ =-- U ~ ~ V ~ O O ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ O ~ ~ ~ ·- ~ m~ · - ~ s ~ 0 ~ ~ ~ I., ·^ ~ m ~ E~ u] ~: (~ ~ ~ E~ £ - - · - s C' o
127 v U. · - 1 ~ JJ Go U] .^ 0 to Cal o . - ,1 3 t.) ~ : a' 0 .,, Ed to S S sit O O X CQ ~ Girl ~ C) EN 0 0 sin Q PI Q o k O , · rid ~ en ~ ~ U ·rl o ~ S O V · - 0 O · - ~ O · - S4 £ 0 0 . ~ a, ·e O 0 a) 0 s · V 0 s o Cal to . · _' ~ At .,, · ~ ~ O V V ~ .,. Sit ~ ~ ~ ~ o ·- O O ~ a, a: m 0 :: , $a, ·e ut 0 ·^ oD tQ o Q ~Q · 0 ~ · - ~; ~ o ~Q s ~ s O C' · - ~: O ~q E~ · ~ U~ ~ s ~ P~ · ~ 0 ' U ' ~ ~5 t) O ~ 3 ~ £ ~ ~ ~: s ~ er O ·e h C~ o · O ~ U] eQ S O Q E~ U] . - ~s U] a) S4 s o a s · . ~ a, ~n ~ 0 C) Q ~Q s o a o ~Q a, a a a, s s o 0 ~ ~ 0 .,, ~ CQ O 0 ~ a' s o . - .-, o . - u ~Q .^ o u 0 ·e ~ V" s - · J O a' CQ ta ~ ' - _I O O · - Q ~ s P' ~: . O a' ~o a) .. · - [,q ~ ~: . O · - . _I V u · es s o ·,4 U] ·^ oo er ~ _I _1 0 iD u~ d~ ~ ~ ~ ~ / s o . - o U, · C~ ' (V s · - cn z
128 Table 9-5 lists the first six. In spite of the reserva- tions associated with citation analysis, Guthridge concludes that ~...the masses of literature evaluated in this study point inescapably to the conclusion that antarctic research has advanced understanding on many of the world's frontiers of science." HIGHLIGHTS OF ANTARCTIC DISCOVERIES AND RESEARCH Fr om the large number of antarctic topics that are important on the global scene, only a brief mention of a few examples can be attempted here. In marine biology, some understanding of the changes in the balance among the species shown in Figure 9-7 is being developed. The interactions within the biomass are illustrated by Figure 9-10 (from Laws, 1983). The antarc- tic waters are remarkable for their high productivity (Knox, 1983; and Chittleborough, 1984), and the Antarctic Ocean's biomass is large on the world scale. Already, antarctic research has indicated some of the controlling factors on biomass productivity (Tranter, 1982). The physical and chemical oceanographic studies of the Antarctic Ocean have shown the important role that the antarctic region plays in global ocean circulation, the control of our climate, the circulation of atmospheric gases, and the distribution of nutrients (Gordon and Goldberg, 1971; DeWitt, 1971; and El-Sayed, 1975). The antarctic bottom water has been referred to as the "lung of the ocean" for its role in transferring oxygen and _ nutrients to other regions of the global ocean system (cf. Edmond, 1975). Figure 9-11 (from Gordon, 1971, as modified by Budd, 1980; and from Knox, 1983) shows the main water-mass transfers and the prominent role of antarctic sea ice in driving the deep mixing by salt rejection. High on the list of topics for which antarctic research has been a key factor is the concept of continental drift and the reconstruction of the past locations of the con- tinents. Figure 9-12 (from the U.S. Antarctic Journal cover picture of May-June 1970 and Colbert, 1970) illustrates the crucial role of Antarctica in Gondwanaland reconstruction and that the fossil flora and fauna found in Antarctica provide crucial evidence to support the theory. Further crucial evidence of the processes of separation of the continents has come from the matching patterns of
129 U] U] o it, Q , ~ V J o So ~ _ ·- O ~ -- t) ~ · - .~' a, S CQ 1 a S _ ~ .~1 3 To ~1 1 ~ · - P~ ~ Q. ~ a) H ~ ~
130 (a) tea ice Cone GREENLAND PF AD ~ t I REGION (-1 34.1 ) 15 ~ - - < /~] 1 / AlW / / {+1,34.7} of/ / O/ / 77 / I \ \ WARM \ ~ ` \ ' ~1 ~ ~ ~ 15 COLD NADW ~ ~ _ 34 VALUES IN 106 M3/SEC (sv) < AABW AVERAGE FOR YEAR _ . _ N (b S FIGURE 9-11 Antarctic and global ocean water masses with estimated characteristics and fluxes: (a) estimated gross meridional annual fluxes between world ocean water masses (modified by Budd, 1980; after Gordon, 1971); and (b) meridional and zonal flow in the Southern.Ocean under summer conditions (from Knox, 1983) (Reprinted with permission. cat cot At: a
131 ( I, ~ ~ GONDWANALAND tr''ro'.uru' '`eleton, on di~plor In Sewlh A,rico. I,) nto TV 1~. J. tIreed loom ce crl~cic .~ ~1. W. Crumplon ~~- loft _ _ ~~ 1 I,~ - Re''orolio. .' Ir~l, .~H.. Bepr;~~d I._ rho 49. el Reptile' -;lh ~ per- m;~;en .' W. W. Ne"~ PI C.. Cepr- reghl t HIS by Edwin H. Cal. Vrewl~. .e Ye~~t J!. Collars' FIGURE 9-12 Gondwanaland reconstruction with _J ~ AFRICA ~ 1'~ __,¢-N | ~ ANTARCTICA \4 1 W-~: | \ AUSTRALIA ~ NSt~ representations of reptile fossils found in Antarctica as well as the other continents Modified from U.S. Antarctic Journal (Vol. 5, No. 3) and Colbert (1970)] (Reprinted with permission).
132 magnetic variations in the sediments on opposite sides of the midocean ridge, as shown in Figure 9-13 (from Weissel and Hayes, 1972). Measurements of the paleomagnetic loca- tions of the south magnetic pole from antarctic rocks have provided valuable evidence that the average position of the magnetic pole in recent millennia clusters around the geographic pole, as shown in Figure 9-14 (from Funaki, 1984). This concept is a cornerstone for determining the paleocontinental locations of the long geological history of the Earth. AS a supplement to the paleodata, measure- ments in both polar regions have shown how the magnetic dip poles are currently well displaced from the geographic poles and have a well-established movement over the period of observations. These data are invaluable for developing theories on the Earth's magnetic field and the causes of its past and future variations. Studies of deep ocean sediments around the world have provided clear evidence of the large fluctuations of sea level and climate associated with glacial and inter- glacial variations. Figure 9-15 (from an Antarctic Ocean sediment study presented by Hays, 1978) shows clearly the typical variations over about the last 130,000 years, which are well recognized from sediments in other parts of the world. The Southern Ocean data have been crucial for comparing the time scales of the changes in the dif- ferent hemispheres and thereby theories about the causes of these changes. The antarctic ice sheet has the potential for providing a much clearer record of climate and ice changes of the last few glacial cycles, along with other factors that changed at the same time, such as atmospheric gases, vol- canic fallout, dust, and sea salt. Figure 9-16 (from Budd and Young, 1983) shows computed ages and particle paths for the ice sheet in the region of Vostok Station. Results from the Vostok deep core given by Gordienko et al. (1983) and Grosswald (1983) already show part of the similar variations seen in the deep sea sediments as shown by Figure 9-17. Other cores from Antarctica and Greenland also show the same characteristic features but much more compressed near the base (cf. Robin, 1983). The deep ice in East Antarctica is useful for going back much further in time. The basic dynamics of the present-day antarctic ice sheet, determined from many years' observations, has provided the basis for computing the behavior of the ice age ice sheets that covered North America and Europe some 20,000 years ago (Budd and Smith, 1981). A more recent
133 130. , I 50~ I--! . i,0 Reconstruction at the time of lorn,atio'' of anomaly 13 (38 m.~. B.P.) showering tcon~etr) of n~agnctic 1ineations, initial direction of relative motion (broken line), and magnetic quiet cones (shaded). / O / Z I -- ---- ~ACT- rid I _. ]..~: I) .- ooc i_ ...~...~..~- ~-~~~ O_ ~ --_ ~_-) ~ .._..-- ·4~ N S( ~ as\ ~ O ~ In FIGURE 9-13 Magnetic variations on opposite sides of the midocean ridge between Australia and the Antarctic showing the similar magnetic patterns with distance from the ridge (from Weissel and Hayes, 1972) (Reprinted with permission).
134 (a) Do ~ ~ 4~`ff5N ' \ (b) oo / ~ 60o '.~ ~~\: \~ \ sown ~ tt:;'\~tn!'~.\t I . _ ~4 _ ~ 180° (c) Oo ,~, - · \ Geom~glletic ~ ~ - - 10 ~ t .7 1 wow \. Geographic / 1 80° \: 1 80° !90°E FIGURE 9-14 Plots of geologically recent paleo virtual geomagnetic poles (VGP's) determined in the Antarctic and the Arctic: (a) Previous Cenozoic VGP positions for Ant- arctica, modified from Funaki (1984); (b) VGP positions from McMurdo volcanics; and (c) Pleistocene and recent Northern Hemisphere VGP. Note the clustering of VGP's around the modern geographic pole rather than around the present geomagnetic pole (redrawn from Cox and Doell, 1960) (Reprinted with permission).
135 ICE SHEE] RESPONSES 50 _ I ~ i! '` '! l.] iL -150 '100 -so 0 ~GE 11 103a 3.0 18 2.5 2.0 - '40 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 ~ I ~ I I I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 3.5- T s ~4'3 ~ 2 l' I . ; . I , I , I , soo 400 300 200 100 0 Deptn c~n .1~ RC1 1-120 [I I ' I / 1 '1''/, I I I ,ll I, I . I I hN' tJ i I ii l/ 6t ii'\ I `1 '''1 ll O~6 ST4GES IL 1sz lr 0 - 0 1 10~ 1 J ~ I . ~ o c O ~ FIGURE 9-15 Comparison of sea sediment paleoclimatic indi- cators (from Hays, 1978) with computed ice volume changes from ice sheet modeling in response to the Earth's orbital radiation changes (from Budd and Smith, 1981, 1985) (Reprinted with permission).
136 ~\711l 1 , 67 1 \ \\ \\ o O /W it\ it\ it\ r lo' ~/~K in / / //' 1/ ' I ~ I ~ 1 i? lo' ~ ~ Cut we uo!~eAe13 O U] 0 a) O O US ~ a) .,' O {<, a., a) O C,) - U' . v O O Cat ~ O O O C) o O :D H - a' .,' o HI - ~t ~ .,' 3 o U] U] a) .,, 3 - ·,' U] U] .,, Sit a) a' . a) ·' · - a) ~ - CO o a) ~ m a kD A, O 1 m~ U] Y o o In ~ 0
v se~ew ~uden c~ ° ~0 ~n ~ 0 ~ e nl a~v 1:11~ - t I 1H ~ _ | N ~ ~ !~ | ~ D X =t ~ | N {D ~ 03 N t~ ·0 0 ~ ~ 08O e~ol a8y - ~ ~ I 1 1 l l' 1 1 1 I ~; I" 0 l X) dS sJee' _al _~~ 137 o ~r - - ,= a \., ~ S V .,, ~ V os o U]- - X ~ o o ~ c' C~ ~ ,~ ~ a, ·" ~ ° m vq S . ~ _ . ~ ~ n 0 ~ ~ ~ V. ) 0 ~ s ~ ~ O ~ ~ U) ~o ~ ~ ~ s ~ s · ~ i,' 4~ ~ ~ a, P. ~ ~ ~ o.m v ~ AS o o ~ 3 ~ ton o O a) _~ - c~ _I U) s <: ~ ~ ' - ·,~ .~ ~ 1 ~~ U] - O ~ E~ ~ O ~ ~ ~ 2 3 E~ · - ~ a, ~ ~ ~ ~ eQ U2 ~ . - ~ ~ O · '^ ' _, _-- aJ r ~ O V °~ Q) a, ~ S ~ a. =. - ~ ~ ~ ~ O a) ~ ~ V 0 ~ ~ s ~ ~ .= ~o o~ ~ ~o . - ~ ~ a - C~ ow U] O O r~l e tt Q ~ c' a) Q. ~ a: _ O a C) ~ ~ ~ ~ a,, s~ 0 I v m s a, . a H a) O ~ ~ ~ ~ U]
138 computation shows that the ice sheet and climate changes derived from the Earth's orbital radiation changes give rise to ice volume variations that closely match the sea sediment data over the past 400,000 years, Figure 9-18. The deep antarctic ice cores will be crucial in confirming these results. The discovery that radio waves of certain frequencies can travel large distances through ice has led to the development of the radio echo sounder. Figure 9-19 (from Robin, 1983) shows clearly how the bedrock and ice thick- ness can be determined and also important subsurface layering within the ice. This subsurface layering may be able to be tied in the ice core data to serve as clear historical markers of the ancient layers preserved in the ice. Finally, it needs to be reiterated that the Antarctic is invaluable for its role in global environment monitor- ing. The long series of measurements of Cot from the South Pole Station are classic and have been instrumental in the formulation of theories of the global circulation of the gas (cf. Mook et al., 1983). Similarly, the measurements of CO2 at the coast of Antarctica have been instrumental in determining the role of the antarctic sea ice in transferring the CO2 to the deep ocean (cf. Budd, 1980; Fraser et al., 1980; and Milne and Smith, 1980). Other monitoring of global importance in Antarctica includes that of weather and climate, the upper atmo- sphere and ionosphere, cosmic rays, turbidity, volcanic fallout, anthropogenic fallout and pollution, radioactiv- ity, atmospheric composition, solar-terrestrial phenomena, earthquakes, magnetic fields, polar motion, and earth- tides. This list is meant to give some examples rather than to be comprehensive. It is quite clear that antarc- tic data form an essential part of the global environment monitoring system and are needed as a regular part of the global coverage. THE TREATY NATIONS AS THE UNITED NATIONS "ANTARCTIC RANGERS From the foregoing review it is clear that the Antarctic is a valuable global resource for scientific research. It is also an important natural habitat for wildlife, particularly around the coastal and oceanographic zone. Antarctica is unique for its scenery of unsurpassed
139 60 50 _ 40 30 E 20 > it, 10 o .I~'/'V' 1 h I / Id: , -500 -450 -400 -350 -300 -250 -200 -150 -100 . I a) 1 !i 1.ti`~1'..1 -50 0 Age 1 03a 1 1 1 1 1 t 1 t l Major interglacials Depth m 1 10 5 . b) It 1 1 1 1 I ~ f<~1/ l 61~ 14 r14 400 300 200 100 Estimated age 1 03a FIGURE 9-18 (a) Longer term changes of ice volume computed by Budd and Smith (1985) compared with (b) deep sea sediment isotope changes over 400,000 years (from Broecker and van Donk, 1970) (Reprinted with permission). O i cot o - 1 Se
140 w an < 2 0 1 O ~ _ _.k0 Site of retle`:tlon / coeff. profile / O km loo Crossing point FIGURE 9-19 Radio ice thickness sounding records given by Robin (1983) showing clear bedrock reflections and systematically varying internal echos (Reprinted with permission).
141 beauty. Part of the attractive character of the Antarctic is its large area of unspoiled natural wilderness. There is no doubt that the Antarctic is one of the Earth's natural wonders, which can be appreciated by all people today and by the generations to come. The Antarctic Treaty System provides for the preserva- tion of the Antarctic and for its use as a region of peaceful international cooperation and scientific research. The treaty nations may be regarded as those nations most interested in antarctic research and most prepared to provide the support to undertake it. The data, information, and material obtained from the Antarc- tic are made freely available to the rest of the global community, and by using these data, other nations can also become involved in antarctic research. Antarctic expeditionary activities, however, are rather costly because of the expensive logistics required for transport, living, and communication in the harsh environ- ment. Table 9-6 provides some indications of the major transport logistics in use by the nations currently work- ing in Antarctica. The number of stations and wintering personnel, along with some indication of the order of magnitude of the number of summer visitors, is given in Table 9-7. The high cost of logistics facilities required means that only the more technologically advanced nations can be expected to be able to afford to mount regular, large-scale expeditionary activity. Cooperation among nations has been most effective. Many cases of exchange of expeditioners occur among the treaty nations. In addition, the treaty nations have arranged for members of other nations to participate in antarctic field work. With the growing international interest in the Antarctic and discussions within the U.N of current antarctic matters, the promotion of greater awareness of the region is most appropriate. Participa- tion in antarctic activities for a wider cross section of the global community should be encouraged, but this should be done with care to preserve the principles of the Antarctic Treaty, particularly regarding preservation, peaceful cooperation, and free exchange of scientific research results. In this regard the treaty nations can play a major role, somewhat similar to the concept of park rangers working to understand the region better, to publicize the value and features of the region, and to preserve it well for future generation. Thus, if the Antarctic is .
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143 - x o - ~q o . - U) C) 1 a, m ~ In o . - o P. o . - z In ~ 1 P. In .,. - I- U) .~ . 0 o, ~ CQ 0 In Io ~ ~ In UP UP or CO o o o o UP o 1 to to a) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o ~ U. Cal o 1 1 o o 1 ID tD O lo o o o o 1 lo to or ~ ~ un u, ~ Or ~ - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 - . - ~ ~ ~ r" ~ ~ 0 ~o 0 ~ ~ U~ C~ o iD ~r ~o 0 ~r U~ ~r 0 C~ - - er 0 0 =. ~ ~r C~ ~ ~ a' 0 ~ cn ~ 0 ~ 0C~ er ~ ~ ° O c~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ , - ~r CD ~ O 0 ~r U, ~r (D ~ ~0 a~ U~ un (D . - i4 ~ S << C) o 0 C~ - O O t~ ·,4 U · ·,1 _ ~ V -0 O ~.rl ~n P. · cn ~ ~ ·S P' 3 X .- ~ 0 _ _ o O ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 ~ - E~ O ~ C) ~ O _ U) _ ~ O ~n ~4 ~; ·o C) n ~ ~ _ 0 - 1 ·'t ~ ,` JJ _ o, ~ ~ Z _ _ ·% ~ _ ~ o" .~1 ~ 0 JJ V 0 - ~ p, _ -, ~ ~ ' c: _ ·rl ~ 0 - -o :, U~ - - o · - ~ · - :~: ~¢ . . ~ 0 >,~ P: ~ V ~ C~ ~ ~ s · . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ C~ ~ ~ 3 ~, _~ ~ u~ . a `~' ~, ~ Z Z° ~ `°n U33 0 bB cn ~ . o :3 ~ · - tQ o ·rl . ~Q ·e ~: cq 8 ~ cn 0 o :~: 0 s t) s~ -
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